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“跟谁看”和“以为跟谁看”：注视线索及其社会性信息对眼动榜样样例效应的影响*
张俐娟, 陈登水, 昝晓琪, 张锦坤
心理科学 ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (3) : 535-544.
PDF(1162 KB)
PDF(1162 KB)
“跟谁看”和“以为跟谁看”：注视线索及其社会性信息对眼动榜样样例效应的影响*
The Differential Impact of Gaze Cues and Their Social Information on Eye Movement Modeling Examples Effect: “Looking with Whom” vs. “Thinking about Looking with Whom”
眼动榜样样例效应表明专家注视线索能够引导注意力和促进学习。研究发现，学习者对注视线索的社会性信念可能影响该效应。两个实验考察了眼动榜样样例效应中注视线索的作用机制。实验1探讨注视线索及其相关的社会性信念对眼动榜样样例学习中注意力分配和学习效果的影响；实验2进一步探讨注视线索类型（专家、同辈）及其相关的社会性信念（指导语为专家、同辈）在其中的作用。结果发现，注视线索具有注意引导作用，且较少受学习者社会性信念的影响；当学习者认为注视线索来自专家时，表现出更高的学习动机，学习成绩更好。研究表明眼动榜样样例学习中注视线索在引导注意和促进学习方面的作用机制可能不同，注视线索具有稳定的注意引导作用，而学习者对注视线索的社会性信念则显著地影响学习效果。
Eye movement modelling examples (EMME) is an emerging instructional design that effectively supports multimedia learning. It records the eye-movement tracks of experts in the process of learning or solving problems and superimposes them onto video materials to show novice or less experienced learners. Previous studies have confirmed the effectiveness of eye movement examples in attentional guidance and the promotion of multimedia learning from the perspective of attention and (meta)cognitive processing. Recent studies have shown that social information of gaze cues (e.g., learners’ social beliefs about gaze cues) may have an impact on the effectiveness of EMME. Through two experiments, this study investigated the impact of social cues and their associated social beliefs on the effectiveness of EMME. This study aims to enhance the application of eye movement examples and improve the outcomes of multimedia learning.
In Experiment 1, three groups of learners with different social beliefs about gaze cues were set up by manipulating the instruction: the expert model group (expert gaze cues - expert instruction), the peer model group (expert gaze cues - peer instruction), and the physical cues group (expert gaze cues - computer generated instruction). A control group without eye movement examples was also established to investigate the impact of learners’ social beliefs on the effectiveness of EMME. Building upon Experiment 1, Experiment 2 further investigated how different types of model gaze cues (e.g., peers or experts) and learners’ social beliefs about these cues (instruction gaze cues from an expert or peer) independently or jointly affect the EMME effect. The purpose of Experiment 2 was not only to validate the results of Experiment 1 but also to elucidate the role of social cues associated with gaze cues in the mechanism of EMME.
The results of Experiment 1 showed that compared with the control group, learners in the expert model group, peer model group, and physical cues group had a higher proportion of fixation in the interest area and a shorter time before the first fixation. Learning was enhanced by eye movement examples only when learners perceived the eye movement trajectory to be recorded by experts. These results indicate that gaze cues can provide a stable guide for attention, while learners’ social beliefs significantly affect learning outcomes. The results of experiment 2 showed that compared with peer gaze cues, learners under expert gaze cues had longer fixation time, shorter time before the first fixation, and higher retention and transfer scores. These results suggest that expert gaze cues effectively direct learners’ attention allocation and facilitate cognitive processing, thereby improving the learning outcomes. Additionally, learners under the instruction gaze cues from expert condition showed shorter initial fixation times and higher transfer test scores compared to those under the instruction gaze cues from peer condition, indicating that learners’ social beliefs about gaze cues significantly impact the EMME effect. Combined with the subjective questionnaire, it is found that learners believe that the expert eye movement track is more helpful, and their learning motivation is higher. This belief may prompt them to process the learning content more deeply.
This study indicates that both “looking with whom” and “thinking about looking with whom” impact the multimedia learning effect. Among them, the gaze cues of eye movement examples have a stable attention guidance effect, in which the expert gaze cues are especially helpful in guiding attention and promoting cognitive processing. Additionally, the learners’ social beliefs about gaze cues affect the learning outcomes. When learners believe that eye movement tracks are recorded by experts, they show better academic performance, which may be related to their expectations of gaze cues and their learning motivation. This study reveals the important role of expert gaze cues and their associated social beliefs in optimizing learning results in EMME, providing guidance for the optimization and application of eye movement examples.
eye movement examples / gaze cues / social information / multimedia learning
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认知如何影响眼动一直以来得到研究者高度重视, 而近年来研究者开始通过眼动榜样样例反过来直接考察眼动如何影响认知。作为一种新颖的教学样例, 眼动榜样样例能够有效引导注意, 即促进信息的选择、组织和整合加工, 并提高眼动轨迹一致性, 但并没有稳定地促进教学效果。研究者从信息缩减假说、多媒体学习认知理论、认知学徒制理论等视角进行了积极的理论预期和解释。未来研究需从边界条件、作用机制、眼动轨迹预训练、专长发展、合作学习及神经基础等角度进一步考察眼动榜样样例的教学作用。
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People intuitively believe that when they become consciously aware of a visual stimulus, they will be able to remember it and immediately report it. The present study provides a series of striking demonstrations of behavior that is inconsistent with such an intuition. Four experiments showed that in certain conditions, participants could not report an attribute (e.g., letter identity) of a stimulus even when that attribute had been attended and had reached a full state of conscious awareness just prior to being questioned about it. We term this effect attribute amnesia, and it occurs when participants repeatedly locate a target using one attribute and are then unexpectedly asked to report that attribute. This discovery suggests that attention to and awareness of a stimulus attribute are insufficient to ensure its immediate reportability. These results imply that when attention is configured by using an attribute for target selection, that attribute will not necessarily be remembered. © The Author(s) 2015.
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Metacognitive evaluations refer to the processes by which people assess their own cognitive operations with respect to their current goal. Little is known about whether this process is susceptible to social influence. Here we investigate whether nonverbal social signals spontaneously influence metacognitive evaluations. Participants performed a two-alternative forced-choice task, which was followed by a face randomly gazing towards or away from the response chosen by the participant. Participants then provided a metacognitive evaluation of their response by rating their confidence in their answer. In Experiment 1, the participants were told that the gaze direction was irrelevant to the task purpose and were advised to ignore it. The results revealed an effect of implicit social information on confidence ratings even though the gaze direction was random and therefore unreliable for task purposes. In addition, nonsocial cues (car) did not elicit this effect. In Experiment 2, the participants were led to believe that cue direction (face or car) reflected a previous participant's response to the same question—that is, the social information provided by the cue was made explicit, yet still objectively unreliable for the task. The results showed a similar social influence on confidence ratings, observed with both cues (car and face) but with an increased magnitude relative to Experiment 1. We additionally showed in Experiment 2 that social information impaired metacognitive accuracy. Together our results strongly suggest an involuntary susceptibility of metacognitive evaluations to nonverbal social information, even when it is implicit (Experiment 1) and unreliable (Experiments 1 and 2).
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In this article, we present an investigation into the use of visual cues during number line estimation and their influence on cognitive processes for reducing number line estimation error. Participants completed a 0-1000 number line estimation task before and after a brief intervention in which they observed static-visual or dynamic-visual cues (control, anchor, gaze cursor, mouse cursor) and also made estimation marks to test effective number-target estimation. Results indicated that a significant pre-test to post-test reduction in estimation error was present for dynamic-visual cues of modelled eye-gaze and mouse cursor. However, there was no significant performance difference between pre- and post-test for the control or static anchor conditions. Findings are discussed in relation to the extent to which anchor points alone are meaningful in promoting successful segmentation of the number line and whether dynamic cues promote the utility of these locations in reducing error through attentional guidance.
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We investigated in an experiment with 180 university students the joint role of prior knowledge, alleged model competence, and social comparison orientation regarding the effectiveness of Eye Movement Modeling Examples (EMME) for supporting multimedia learning. EMME consisted of short videos with gaze replays of an instructed model demonstrating effective multimedia processing strategies. Participants were either instructed that the model in the EMME-videos was a successful learner (competent model) or another participant (peer model). Participants in a control condition received no EMME. Furthermore, we activated domain-relevant prior knowledge in half of the participants before watching the EMME. Against our expectations, we found no influence of either prior knowledge activation or model-observer similarity. As expected, our results indicated that EMME fostered multimedia learning. This was also supported by findings from small-scale meta-analyses that were conducted with the focus on the effect of EMME for multimedia learning and potential moderators of the effect. Moreover, results showed first evidence that social comparison orientation interacts with (alleged) model competence regarding the effectiveness of EMME. Further research is needed to follow up on the influence of individual factors as well as social cues on the effectiveness of EMME.
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The human superior temporal sulcus (STS) has been suggested to be involved in gaze processing, but temporal data regarding this issue are lacking. We investigated this topic by combining fMRI and MEG in four normal subjects. Photographs of faces with either averted or straight eye gazes were presented and subjects passively viewed the stimuli. First, we analyzed the brain areas involved using fMRI. A group analysis revealed activation of the STS for averted compared to straight gazes, which was confirmed in all subjects. We then measured brain activity using MEG, and conducted a 3D spatial filter analysis. The STS showed higher activity in response to averted versus straight gazes during the 150-200 ms period, peaking at around 170 ms, after stimulus onset. In contrast, the fusiform gyrus, which was detected by the main effect of stimulus presentations in fMRI analysis, exhibited comparable activity across straight and averted gazes at about 170 ms. These results indicate involvement of the human STS in rapid processing of the eye gaze of another individual.
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When learning with text and pictures, learners often fail to adequately process the materials, which can be explained as a failure to self-regulate one's learning by choosing adequate cognitive learning processes. Eye movement modelling examples (EMME) showing how to process multimedia instruction have improved elementary school children's learning from text and pictures in previous studies.We tested whether the positive effects of EMME for improving self-regulated multimedia learning extend to university students and teaching of more comprehensive processing strategies. Moreover, we investigated whether EMME's effectiveness depends upon a learner's cognitive prerequisites.Participants were 50 university students (38 female; M = 26.88 years) with different study majors.Different prior knowledge aspects were assessed as cognitive prerequisites. Before learning about mitosis from a multimedia instruction, students either received no intervention or saw EMME demonstrating various multimedia learning processes. Learning outcomes and eye movements served as dependent variables.Learners in the EMME group showed more intense processing of pictures and more frequent transitions between text and pictures. Weaker learners showed poorer recall performance after having studied EMME, whereas EMME had no effect on stronger students. In the forced-choice verification task, stronger students benefitted from EMME, whereas no effect occurred for weaker students. The picture-processing time was suited to explain the positive effects of EMME for stronger students.Our results indicate that EMME illustrating a comprehensive set of cognitive processes support multimedia learning for stronger university students.© 2017 The British Psychological Society.
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What are the neuronal correlates of reflexive shifts of attention triggered by eye gaze direction? Event related potentials (ERPs) were measured on 14 subjects performing a spatial attention task where eye gaze direction of a face cued the location of a forthcoming target. Subjects were faster in detecting a validly cued target, i.e. one appearing at the location the eye was gazing at, compared to invalidly cued targets, despite the non-predictive value of the eye cues. ERP results showed an enhanced and earlier occipito-parietal P1 and N1 for valid trials, demonstrating the early modulation of visual input by attentional allocation. These findings provide the first evidence that social attention can rapidly modify the processing of visual information in extrastriate cortex.
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This article critically reviews the research literature on peer modeling among children as a function of model attributes. Peer modeling is hypothesized to depend in part on perceived similarity between model and observer. Similarity serves as an important source of information for gauging behavioral appropriateness, formulating outcome expectations, and assessing one’s self efficacy for learning or performing tasks. Research is reviewed on the effects of model age, model sex, model competence, number of models, and model background. Peer models can foster diverse types of behavioral change in children, but attribute similarity does not automatically enhance modeling. The conditions under which similarity promotes behavioral change are discussed. Future research needs to assess children’s self-perceptions, as well as maintenance and generalization of behavioral changes. It is suggested that classroom peers can help train social skills, enhance self-efficacy, and remedy skill deficiencies.
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Approach-avoidance behaviors are observed across a broad range of species. For humans, we tend move toward things we like, and away from things we dislike. Previous research tested whether repeatedly shifting visuo-spatial attention toward an object in response to eye gaze cues can increase liking for that object. Here, we tested whether a gaze-liking effect can occur for verbal descriptions of looking behavior without shifts of attention. Also, we tested the gaze specificity hypothesis - that the liking effect is specific to gaze cues - by comparing the effect of different types of cue (pointing gestures and arrow cues). In Experiment 1, participants ( = 205) were split into 5 groups according to the type of cue that was described as directed either toward or away from an object. The results show that (1) attention is not necessary; the liking effect was recorded for verbal descriptions of looking, (2) the effect also occurs for descriptions of pointing and arrows, and (3) the liking effect is enhanced for gaze cues compared to arrows, consistent with the gaze specificity hypothesis. Results from a further experiment suggest that the effect is not due to demand compliance. We conclude that the gaze-liking effect occurs for verbal descriptions of eye gaze. Indeed, because our method bypasses altogether the use of visual cues, objects, and shifts in visual selective attention, our paradigm appears to be more sensitive at tapping into the fundamental approach-avoidance response that mediate the implicit liking effect. As such, it offers new opportunities for research investigations in the future.
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Displays of eye movements may convey information about cognitive processes but require interpretation. We investigated whether participants were able to interpret displays of their own or others' eye movements. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants observed an image under three different viewing instructions. Then they were shown static or dynamic gaze displays and had to judge whether it was their own or someone else's eye movements and what instruction was reflected. Participants were capable of recognizing the instruction reflected in their own and someone else's gaze display. Instruction recognition was better for dynamic displays, and only this condition yielded above chance performance in recognizing the display as one's own or another person's (Experiments 1 and 2). Experiment 3 revealed that order information in the gaze displays facilitated instruction recognition when transitions between fixated regions distinguish one viewing instruction from another. Implications of these findings are discussed.Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Cognitive Science published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Cognitive Science Society.
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