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团体间竞争与青少年冒险行为的关系：效能感和挑战-威胁认知的作用*
Inter-Group Competition and Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents: The Role of Efficacy and Challenge-Threat Cognition
通过团体间竞争、哥伦比亚卡牌任务、挑战-威胁认知和自我、集体效能感量表对274名初中生（女生141名）进行测试，探查团体间竞争对青少年冒险行为的影响及效能感和挑战-威胁认知的作用。结果发现：（1）团体间竞争失败引发集体效能感和自我效能感降低，进而使青少年更趋近冒险，而竞争获胜则相反，更回避风险；（2）与集体和自我效能感的中介路径结果相反，整体模型中集体效能感和挑战-威胁认知在团体间竞争与青少年冒险行为的关系中存在“遮掩效应”，由团体间竞争获胜而引发高集体效能感的青少年倾向于将竞争知觉为挑战，进而导致高冒险倾向，但竞争失败则反之。研究为深入理解团体层面的竞争结果与青少年冒险行为之间的关系及其影响机制提供了参考依据。
It is well known that adolescents are prone to risk-taking behavior. Given that previous research on peer influence has focused primarily on peer presence, the importance of peer group competition as another key aspect of peer environment that influences risk-taking behavior has been overlooked. According to the biopsychosocial model (BPS), individual risk-taking behavior results from physiological, psychological and social-environmental factors. As a common social phenomenon, previous studies have shown that competition can lead to individual risk-taking behavior. However, in real life, individuals usually belong to a certain group or social situation, and often participate in comparison and competition in the form of teams. Due to the strong sense of team awareness and collective honor of adolescents, their inter-group competition may also lead to individual risk-taking behavior. Furthermore, individual behavior is also highly dependent on the cognitive assessment of the current situation. Subjective perceptions and evaluations of the potential risks of the external environment can predict the occurrence of individual risk-taking behaviors. When faced with competitive situations and different outcomes, both the belief on whether oneself or the collective can complete a certain task and the cognitive evaluation of the task situation may further affect the individual’s subsequent behavior performance. First, prior success or failure experiences may cause changes in efficacy, including individual self-efficacy and collective efficacy, which in turn affects risk-taking behavior. Second, when faced with competitive pressures, individuals may have two different cognitive responses, challenge and threat, with individuals with challenging perceptions tending to have cognitive states oriented toward approach motivation, and therefore more inclined to take risks; individuals with threatening cognitions, on the other hand, have avoidance motives and thus a low propensity to take risks. Finally, collective efficacy may provide individuals with a form of peer or social support that alters their cognitive appraisal of the task, which in turn influences subsequent performance. When an individual perceives that their team is capable of responding to a crisis (high collective efficacy), their threat perception decreases, resulting in low risk-taking behavior.
Therefore, to explore the effect of inter-group competition on adolescents’ risk-taking behavior and the mediating roles of efficacy and challenge-threat cognition in this process, a total of 274 middle school students (age: M ± SD = 12.84 ±.66 years, 141 girls) were invited to participate. A between-subject design was used, and all participants completed the General Self-Efficacy Scale and the Collective Efficacy Scale (i.e., pre-tests). Then, they entered the classroom, with the experimental group (pink and blue teams wearing the appropriate color bracelets) entered the classroom together one group at a time, and the control group (green team) entered the classroom one group at a time. The experimenter informed the participants that they were to complete the Transfer Table Tennis Match in teams of five. After that, they completed the Challenge-Threat States Appraisal Questionnaire, the General Self-Efficacy Scale, and the Collective Efficacy Scale (post-test) sequentially, and finally completed the Hot version of the Columbia Card Task in the computer classroom.
The results showed that: (1) Inter-group competition did not directly affect adolescents’ risk-taking behaviors. Rather, it affected risk-taking behaviors through the "bridge" of collective and self-efficacy. Adolescents who lost the competition had lower collective and self-efficacy, which led to a greater tendency to take risks, and vice versa for those who won the competition. (2) Contrary to the results of the mediating path of efficacy, collective efficacy and challenge-threat cognition showed a "suppressing effect" on the relation between inter-group competition and adolescent risk-taking behavior. Adolescents with high collective efficacy triggered by winning inter-group competition tended to perceive the competition as a challenge, leading to a high propensity to take risks. The opposite was true in the case of competition failure.
In conclusion, inter-group competition was associated with adolescents’ risk-taking behavior through collective efficacy, self-efficacy, and challenge-threat cognition. Challenge-threat cognition was a key mechanism in inter-group competition and adolescent risk-taking behavior. This study enriches the research field of risk-taking behavior and provides empirical evidence to promote healthy adolescent development.
冒险行为 / 团体间竞争 / 集体效能感 / 自我效能感 / 挑战-威胁认知
risk-taking behavior / inter-group competition / collective efficacy / self-efficacy / challenge-threat cognition
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Decision theories have made a distinction between risk (i.e., known probabilities) and ambiguity (i.e., unknown probabilities). Prior work has examined the effect of competition and cooperation on risk-taking under risk. However, little is known about whether and how competition and cooperation affect risk-taking under ambiguity and the role of gender in this effect. The current study addresses this research gap. In the present study, a shortened version of a balloon analogue risk task was used to assess risk-taking under ambiguity. The participants completed this task in competition against a peer, in cooperation with a peer, or alone. The results showed that the participants took more risks in the competition and cooperation conditions than in the individual condition, but no differences were found between the competition and cooperation conditions. More important, gender modulated these effects. First, these effects were driven by males, but not by females. Second, males showed more risk-taking under ambiguity than females in the competitive situation, but not in the cooperative situation. Overall, this work contributes to understanding the effect of social interaction on risky decisions under ambiguity.© 2020 The Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences and John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
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The present study investigated age-related changes in the intergroup allocation of resources depending on whether the ingroup norm was competitive or cooperative. Participants included children ( = 8.69), adolescents ( = 13.81), and adults ( = 20.89), ( = 263) who were inducted into simulated groups and informed about an ingroup norm of either cooperation or competition. The goal context for the resource allocation task was either prosocial (to benefit the welfare of animals in a charity event) or group focused (to win a national interschool competition). They were then asked to allocate resources between an ingroup and outgroup, and to justify their allocation. The findings showed that children allocated significantly more resources to their ingroup in order to achieve a prosocial goal, but only when the ingroup norm was competitive. In contrast, adolescents and adults allocated resources equally irrespective of the ingroup norm. These findings showed that children prioritized the moral goal of welfare over that of fairness when their ingroup favored competition, while adolescents and adults always prioritized fairness. Older participants justified their equal allocation with greater reference to the importance of fair competition. This study demonstrated an important developmental shift in how the prioritization of moral goals during intergroup resource allocation is influenced by ingroup norms of competition and cooperation. (PsycINFO Database Record(c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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We compared how evaluations by out-group members and evaluations by in-group members affected participants' stress responses--their neuroendocrine reactivity, cognitive appraisals, and observed anxiety--and how participants' implicit racial bias moderated these responses. Specifically, White participants completed measures of racial bias prior to the experiment. During the experiment, participants performed speech and serial subtraction tasks in front of White or Black interviewers. Several saliva samples were obtained, and they were assayed for catabolic ("breaking down") and anabolic ("building up") hormones. Interviewers' race and participants' racial bias interacted in predicting stress responses. When interviewers were Black, lower racial bias was linked with more salutary stress responses: lower threat appraisals, less anxiety, and increased levels of anabolic hormones. When interviewers were White, no effect was found for threat appraisals or anabolic hormones, and the reverse effect was observed for anxiety. Egalitarianism may have physical and psychological benefits for people living in a diverse society.
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This article proposes a framework for theory and research on risk-taking that is informed by developmental neuroscience. Two fundamental questions motivate this review. First, why does risk-taking increase between childhood and adolescence? Second, why does risk-taking decline between adolescence and adulthood? Risk-taking increases between childhood and adolescence as a result of changes around the time of puberty in the brain's socio-emotional system leading to increased reward-seeking, especially in the presence of peers, fueled mainly by a dramatic remodeling of the brain's dopaminergic system. Risk-taking declines between adolescence and adulthood because of changes in the brain's cognitive control system - changes which improve individuals' capacity for self-regulation. These changes occur across adolescence and young adulthood and are seen in structural and functional changes within the prefrontal cortex and its connections to other brain regions. The differing timetables of these changes make mid-adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability to risky and reckless behavior.
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