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个体水平及群体水平的同伴支持与青少年内化问题的关系：基于社会网络分析方法*
Individual-Level and Group-Level Peer Support and Adolescent Internalizing Problems: Based on Social Network Analysis
同伴支持对青少年心理健康有重要影响。为了探究个体及群体水平同伴支持与青少年内化问题的关系，本研究基于121个班级4056名中学生的调查，借助社会网络分析获取同伴支持网络的个体和群体水平指标，构建多层线性模型。结果发现：(1)学生寻求支持关系越多，焦虑、抑郁和孤独感越低；被寻求支持关系越多，抑郁和孤独感越低；(2)同伴支持网络密度越大，学生的孤独感越低；(3)班级中同伴支持网络密度和寻求支持关系阶层性均能调节个人寻求支持关系数和孤独感之间的关系。研究结果表明，个体水平和群体水平的同伴支持均与青少年内化问题存在负相关，群体水平同伴支持能够调节个体水平同伴支持与内化问题的关系，这对寻求途径降低青少年内化问题有重要的实践意义。
Internalizing problems, such as depression, anxiety, and loneliness, refer to disturbances in emotion or mood. These problems can have a detrimental impact on adolescent adaptation and may even lead to severe outcomes in adulthood. These internalizing problems are of particular concern during adolescence, a period characterized by intense physical and mental changes that can exacerbate them. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the factors influencing internalizing problems to develop effective interventions to reduce their prevalence. Since adolescents often interact with their peers in the classroom, peer support plays a pivotal role in alleviating internalizing problems. While previous studies have investigated the effects of perceived peer support on internalizing problems, there is a lack of research examining the influence of peer support on internalizing problems at both group and individual levels. To explore peer support at the group and individual levels, this study employed Social Network Analysis (SNA) to construct peer support networks including all students in a classroom and all their peer support relationships. Additionally, the Hierarchical Linear Model (HLM) was utilized to examine the impact of both group-level and individual-level peer support, as well as the interaction between these two levels, on adolescents' internalizing problems.
In this study, 4,056 second-year junior high school students from 121 classrooms completed the questionnaire. The peer support network within each classroom was established by having students nominate peers from whom they sought help. Internalizing problems were assessed using the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Children’s Depression Inventory, and the Children’s Loneliness Scale. R packages were utilized to calculate metrics for the peer support network, including indicators for individual-level support (e.g., the number of support-seeking relationships and the number of relationships in which one’s support was sought) and group-level support (including density and hierarchy). Multilevel data analysis was conducted using HLM 6.0 software.
The results indicated the following: (1) In terms of individual-level peer support, a negative correlation was found between the number of support-seeking relationships and all three types of internalizing problems, specifically loneliness (β = -.066, p <.001), anxiety (β = -.012, p <.001), and depression (β = -.031, p <.001). Additionally, the number of relationships in which one’s support was sought was significantly linked to reduced levels of loneliness (β = -.041, p <.001) and depression (β = -.017, p <.001). (2) Regarding group-level peer support, only the relation between peer support and loneliness was examined among the three types of internalizing problems, as loneliness exhibited significant variation across classrooms (i.e., ICC loneliness =.120 >.050). Specifically, the density of the peer support network was negatively associated with loneliness among students in the classroom (β = -3.575, p <.01). (3) The interaction between individual-level and group-level peer support revealed that the density of the network and the hierarchy of support-seeking relationships moderated the relationship between the number of support-seeking relationships and loneliness (β=.692, p <.01; β = -.038, p <.05).
In conclusion, at the individual level, adolescents who had more support-seeking relationships experienced lower levels of internalizing problems, and those who had more relationships in which the support was sought also reported lower levels of internalizing problems except for anxiety. At the group level, students in classrooms with higher network density experienced lower loneliness compared to their counterparts. Furthermore, results for the interaction effect partly support the person-culture match theory. Specifically, when compared with their counterparts in high-hierarchy classrooms, students who had more support-seeking relationships in low-hierarchy classrooms tended to experience less loneliness. Conversely, when compared with their counterparts in low-hierarchy classrooms, students who had less support-seeking relationships in high-hierarchy classrooms tended to experience less loneliness. Moreover, compared with counterparts in low-density classrooms, students who had more support-seeking relationships in high-density classrooms tended to report less loneliness. However, students who had fewer support-seeking relationships in high-density classrooms still reported less loneliness than their counterparts in low-density classrooms. Through SNA and multi-level analyses, this study has advanced our understanding of the peer influence on adolescents' internalizing problems. The theoretical and practical implications for reducing adolescents' internalizing problems were also discussed.
内化问题 / 青少年 / 同伴支持 / 多水平分析 / 社会网络分析
internalizing problems / adolescents / peer support / multilevel analysis / social network analysis
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The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted adolescents' psychosocial adjustment and social relationships across the world. This prospective longitudinal study examined whether internalizing problems during the pandemic could be predicted by precrisis friend support, and whether this effect was moderated by the time adolescents spent with their friends and COVID-19-related stress. 245 Dutch adolescents (M = 11.60) participated before and during COVID-19. Higher pre-COVID-19 friend support predicted less (self-reported and parent-reported) internalizing problems during COVID-19, and this effect was not moderated by the time adolescents spent with friends or COVID-19-related stress. Friends may thus protect against developing internalizing symptoms in times of crisis. We also found the reverse effect: Internalizing problems before COVID-19 were predictive of friend support during COVID-19.© 2021 The Authors. Journal of Research on Adolescence published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society for Research on Adolescence.
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To explore the lived experiences of peer support workers (PSWs) during their intervention with mothers suffering from postnatal depression (PND).Postnatal depression is a major public health concern affecting approximately 13% of women worldwide. There is evidence within recent literature that peer support may have a positive effect upon women suffering with PND.Written data from the PSW's logbooks, interviews and supervisory sessions was collected and thematically analysed.Data were analysed using a constant comparative method and four key themes emerged. These were: changing perspectives of the PSW, their personal self-analysis and recognition, concern about the abandonment of the women that they had been supporting and self-recovery from postnatal depression.Findings indicate that PSWs choose to offer support based upon their own experiences, rejecting formal counselling therapies. This study found that peer-designed interventions do appear to have some merit.
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Small but significant gender differences in emotion expressions have been reported for adults, with women showing greater emotional expressivity, especially for positive emotions and internalizing negative emotions such as sadness. But when, developmentally, do these gender differences emerge? And what developmental and contextual factors influence their emergence? This article describes a developmental bio-psycho-social model of gender differences in emotion expression in childhood. Prior empirical research supporting the model, at least with mostly White middle-class U.S. samples of youth, is presented. Limitations to the extant literature and future directions for research on gender and child emotion are suggested.
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Adolescence heralds a unique period of vulnerability to depressive symptoms. This longitudinal study examined relational victimization in adolescents' peer relationships as a unique predictor of depressive symptoms among a primarily (85%) Caucasian sample of 540 youth (294 females) concurrently and across a 6-year period. The moderating effects of emotional support received from mothers, fathers, and peers on the association between relational victimization and adolescents' depressive symptoms were also investigated. Findings revealed that adolescents who were relationally victimized consistently had higher depressive symptoms than their non-victimized peers. However, high levels of emotional support from fathers buffered this relationship over time. Emotional support from mothers and peers also moderated the longitudinal relationship between relational victimization and depressive symptoms, with high levels of support predicting increases in adolescents' symptoms. Relational victimization presents a clear risk for depressive symptoms in adolescence, and emotional support may serve either a protective or vulnerability-enhancing role depending on the source of support.
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The odds ratio (OR) for gender differences in major depression is 1.95, averaged meta-analytically over all ages and nations. The gender difference appears by age 12, OR = 2.37, and peaks at OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15. Using the ABC (affective, biological, cognitive) model as a framework within a vulnerability-stress approach, we consider the evidence for biological vulnerabilities (genes, pubertal hormones, and pubertal timing), affective vulnerabilities (temperament), and cognitive vulnerabilities (negative cognitive style, objectified body consciousness, and rumination). The impact of stress is central to the vulnerability-stress model, and we review evidence on gender differences in stress exposure, emphasizing gender differences in sex-related traumas such as child sexual abuse and rape. Finally, we examine sociocultural factors that may contribute to the gender difference, including the media and gender inequality. An implication for research methods is that single-gender designs should be questioned. Regarding clinical implications, the vulnerabilities and stressors identified in this review should contribute to personalized interventions with depressed individuals, especially depressed women.
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Physical and mental health problems are becoming more common among the general population. Studies examining mental and physical health often indicate that mental illness early in life is associated with more detrimental health outcomes later. However, additional work is needed to better identity which psychological problems may contribute to poorer health outcomes. Given recent increases in childhood anxiety and depression specifically, it is beneficial to further investigate the relationship between internalizing problems, both early and later in life, and related health problems. Furthermore, little work has focused on studying internalizing problems in children as young as preschool-aged. Therefore, the current project used a longitudinal design to assess the effects of preschool and adolescent internalizing problems on health-related problems in adolescence. We analyzed data from 70 youth (47% male) who had been tested in our lab when they were 5 years old and then were administered questionnaires over a telephone interview when they were adolescents, between the ages of 12 and 20 years old. We used multi-informant measures, including parent-report at age 5 and youth-report at follow-up, 7 to 15 years later. Parents reported on children's internalizing behavior problems and negative emotionality (NE). Youth reported on their own internalizing behavior problems as well as health problems, physical activity, and overeating behaviors. Path modeling was used to examine predictions of internalizing and health behaviors. At age 5, parent-reported NE and internalizing problems were related, in addition to 5-year-old internalizing predicting health problems and overeating at follow-up. At follow-up, youth-reported internalizing was positively related to health problems and negatively related to physical activity, suggesting some similarities and differences between parent and youth responses. Additionally, girls reported significantly higher rates of internalizing and health problems at follow-up. These results indicate a significant relationship between preschool-aged and adolescent internalizing problems and related health outcomes experienced in adolescence.
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To examine the association of source of emotional- and financial-related social support and size of social support network on physical activity behavior among older adults.
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The general benefits of social support are well-documented; however, little is understood about the unique contributions of social support from specific sources, such as parents and peers. In addition, it is unknown whether social support from some sources might buffer against a lack of social support from another source for the outcome of internalizing problems. The current study investigated two research questions: (a) What is the association between social support from mothers, fathers, classmates, and close friends and internalizing problems for adolescent boys and girls? and (b) Can social support from one source (e.g., mothers) buffer against internalizing problems when social support from another source (e.g., fathers) may be lacking? Do these associations vary by gender? These research questions were examined with a sample of 364 middle school students (61.3% female). Students completed a series of self-report questionnaires assessing social support and internalizing symptoms. Multiple group structural equation models indicated that social support provided general benefits from all sources for early adolescent boys and girls. Regarding stress-buffering with low support as a stressor, no evidence was found for compensation between mothers and fathers. Mother support compensated for low classmate support for both boys and girls and father support compensated for low classmate support for boys. Classmate support compensated for low close friend support for boys. Implications in the context of the school environment for both boys and girls are discussed.Copyright © 2020 Society for the Study of School Psychology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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This study addresses the interacting effects of classroom cohesion and hierarchy on the relationships between victimization and aggression with peer acceptance and rejection. Classroom cohesion and hierarchy were constructed from friendship nominations. Multilevel analysis conducted in a sample of seventh- and eighth-grade students from the Sociescuela program in Spain (N = 6,600) showed that in cohesive and hierarchical classrooms, a higher level of victimization was found; peer rejection was more strongly associated with victimization. In contrast to previous research, for males, aggression was more strongly associated with peer acceptance in less hierarchized classrooms.
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Theoretical models posit that parenting plays a causal role in the development and maintenance of child psychological problems, yet meta-analytic findings indicate that parenting accounts for less than 6% of the variance in child externalizing problems and less than 4% of the variance in childhood anxiety. Extending the analysis to childhood depression, we conducted a meta-analysis of 45 studies testing the association between parenting and childhood depression. We found that parenting accounted for 8% of the variance in child depression. Parental rejection was more strongly related to childhood depression than was parental control. Moreover, various subdimensions of parenting were differentially associated with childhood depression, with parental hostility toward the child most strongly related to child depression. Analyses also revealed that methodological factors (i.e., how parenting and child depression was conceptualized and assessed) moderated the parenting-childhood depression association. Inconsistent findings within the literature are partially attributable to variations from study to study in measurement quality. Closer attention to the precise measurement of these two constructs in future studies may lead to a more accurate estimate of the association between parenting and child depression. In all, the modest association between parenting and childhood depression indicates that factors other than parenting may account for the preponderance of variance in childhood depression.
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| [64] |
Evidence suggests that externalizing and internalizing symptoms are expressed early in life and are associated with problematic drinking in young adulthood. However, few studies have examined their role during childhood and adolescence in predicting alcohol problems later in life.
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| [65] |
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2012). PISA 2009 technical report. PISA, OECD Publishing.
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| [66] |
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| [67] |
This study investigates the dynamic interplay between bullying relationships and friendships in a sample of 481 students in 19 elementary school classrooms (age 8-12 years; 50% boys). Based on a relational framework, it is to be expected that friendships would be formed when two children bullied the same person and that children would start to bully the victims of their friends. Similarly, it is to be expected that friendships would be formed when two children were victimized by the same bully and that children would become victimized by the bullies of their friends. Longitudinal bivariate social network analysis supported the first two hypotheses but not the latter two. This study provides evidence for group processes in bullying networks in childhood.© 2019 The Authors. Child Development published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society for Research in Child Development.
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| [68] |
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| [69] |
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| [70] |
In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record(c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).
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| [71] |
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| [72] |
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| [73] |
High rates of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs, e.g., abuse and neglect) have been found in young offenders. Furthermore, ACEs seem to increase the risk of developing relevant mental health problems, in non-offending juveniles and adults. However, this association has only seldomly been addressed in offending juveniles and young adults. The present study aimed at evaluating the prevalence of ACEs and mental health problems as well as their association within a sample of male and female young offenders. Altogether, 161 adolescent and young adult offenders (16.8% females) from the youth detention center Worms (Germany) filled out questionnaires concerning ACEs and mental health problems with a focus on attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and intermittent explosive disorder. Considerable rates of mental health problems were found, e.g., a prevalence of 35.9% was found for intermittent explosive disorder. Furthermore, a greater proportion of the female offenders fell into the clinically significant category for somatic complaints, anxiety/depression, and attention problems than the male offenders. Female young offenders also reported more frequently about all forms of ACEs compared to the male offenders. Latent class analysis defined three subtypes of young offenders depending on their individual ACE patterns: (1) low ACEs, (2) mainly neglectful ACEs, and (3) multiple ACEs. ACEs were significantly associated with the occurrence of both internalizing and externalizing mental health disturbances, with the multiple-ACE subtype being most likely to report about significant mental health problems. The results of the present study point towards the relevance to routinely assess ACEs in young offenders to identify possible precursors of mental health problems and of future criminal behaviors.
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| [74] |
The aim of this study was to unravel the interrelatedness of friendship and help, and to examine the characteristics of friendship and help networks. The effects of mutual versus one-sided help relations on friendship initiation and maintenance, and vice versa, were examined. Friendship and help networks were analyzed (N = 953 students; 41 classrooms; M = 12.7). The results illustrate that friendship and help networks show some similarities, but only partly overlap and have distinct characteristics. Longitudinal multiplex social network analyses showed that mutual help was important for the maintenance of friendship, but not for the initiation of friendship. Further, particularly mutual friendships provided a context in which help took place. Implications of these findings are discussed.© 2019 The Authors. Journal of Research on Adolescence published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society for Research on Adolescence.
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| [75] |
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| [76] |
This study investigated the characteristics and development of peer support networks in an effort to unravel the role of friendship in this developmental process. The relationships between friendship networks and peer support networks were explored, and the influence of dyadic and triadic friendships on the development of peer support relationships was examined. Two waves of data were collected among a sample of adolescents in six Chinese junior high schools (n= 913 students from 28 classrooms; mean age = 14.13 years; 50.49% boys), and classroom friendship networks and peer support networks were analyzed. The results showed that peer support networks were sparse, hierarchical, and sex-segregated. Furthermore, peer support networks and friendship networks partially overlapped. Friends tended to have similar support-seeking and support-providing ties. Longitudinal multiplex social network analysis revealed that peer support networks changed moderately over time, and friendships played various roles in the development of peer support networks. Dyadic friendships improved the formation of peer support ties. A mutual friend improved the formation of support relationships between two students when the mutual friend chose the two students as friends, but a mutual friend also hindered or had no effects on the formation of support relationships in other cases. The implications for educators to improve peer support networks are presented, and directions for future research are discussed.
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| [77] |
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| [78] |
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| [79] |
In the current study, data collected from Wave 6 of the Millennium Cohort Study (n = 11,872), a nationally representative sample survey of youth aged 14 years in the UK, are used to examine the prevalence of loneliness among this age-group, investigate the feelings associated with the experience of loneliness among youth, explore the risk factors for loneliness among young people, and learn how they coped with loneliness. Given recent findings that youth are vulnerable to loneliness, the study assesses the prevalence of loneliness among adolescents across some important sociodemographic characteristics, such as nation of residence, gender, and ethnicity. We also identify the kinds of social experiences that accompany loneliness during adolescence, exploring friendship, relations with parents, social support, and bullying. Our key finding is that, in addition to the absence of desired social relationships, which has been typically identified as the ultimate source of loneliness, the presence of undesirable and even harmful social relationships is a major source of loneliness. This study uniquely brings together psychological and sociological perspectives to understand the experience of youth loneliness.
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| [80] |
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| [81] |
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