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校园欺凌情境中动态同伴规范对求助教师意愿的影响——预期遵从的中介作用*
尹军, 孙鸿莉, 王小婷, 艾丹凤, 周文莹, 何晓燕
心理科学 ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (1) : 134-144.
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校园欺凌情境中动态同伴规范对求助教师意愿的影响——预期遵从的中介作用*
The Influence of Dynamic Peer Norms on Students’ Willingness to Seek Help from Teachers in School Bullying: The Mediating Role of Preconformity
求助教师是有效阻止校园欺凌的方法，但同伴不赞同求助教师的规范会阻碍受欺凌者求助。本研究从规范的动态性出发，如赞同求助教师的人数由过去的20%逐渐增加到当前的40%，对校园欺凌情境故事中的不同规范类型进行操纵，通过两个实验分别探讨了动态同伴规范对校园欺凌情境中初中生求助教师意愿的影响及其中介机制。结果发现：相对于静态同伴规范（即仅呈现赞同求助教师的人数比例当前为40%）和其他控制条件，动态同伴规范可提升校园欺凌情境中初中生求助教师的意愿，且预期遵从在其中起部分中介作用。研究揭示，针对校园欺凌，可呈现同伴赞同求助教师这一人数比例逐年变化（动态同伴规范）的信息，以提高学生的求助意愿。
School bullying poses serious risks to the students’ physical and mental health. As an important source of social support for victims, teachers can play a crucial role in stopping bullying when students reach out for help. Despite the proven effectiveness of seeking help from teachers, few students choose this option. Research has found that peer norms are a major barrier, especially the norm that peers disapprove of seeking help from teachers, which strongly affects students’ willingness to ask for assistance. A large body of research focuses on static peer norms—those that reflect how common a behavior or attitude is at a specific moment in time. However, peer norms can also be dynamic, reflecting changes in behaviors and attitudes over time. Dynamic peer norms are more effective in promoting behavioral change, as they encourage individuals to anticipate future normative shifts and motivate them to adjust their actions accordingly.
In this study, we aim to investigate whether and how dynamic peer norms enhance students’ willingness to seek help from teachers in bullying situations. We hypothesize that dynamic peer norms, characterized by an increasing trend in help-seeking behavior from the past to the present, will lead students to anticipate a continued upward trend in the future (i.e., preconformity). This anticipation is expected to encourage alignment with the dynamic norms, thereby increasing their willingness to seek help. To examine this hypothesis, we conducted two experiments. Experiment 1 examined whether dynamic peer norms enhance students’ willingness to seek help compared to static peer norms, dynamic unrelated norms, and control conditions. Experiment 2, consisting of three sub-experiments (2a, 2b, and 2c), aimed to replicate these effects and examine the mediating role of anticipated increases in future help-seeking behavior (i.e., preconformity).
The results showed that: (1) students in the dynamic peer norms condition (M = 5.16, SD = 1.53) reported a greater willingness to seek help from teachers than those in the static peer norms condition (M = 4.29, SD = 1.54), the dynamic unrelated norms condition (M = 4.39, SD = 1.63), and the control condition (M = 4.24, SD = 1.44; Experiment 1). (2) Students in the dynamic peer norms condition (M = 5.57, SD =.97; M = 73.07%, SD= 15.59%) reported greater anticipation of future help-seeking behavior from teachers than those in the static peer norms condition (M = 4.63, SD = 1.41; M = 58.07%, SD = 21.94%), and the dynamic irrelevant norms condition (M = 4.86, SD = 1.37; M = 62.43%, SD = 22.84%; Experiment 2a). (3) Students in the future growth dynamic peer norms condition (M = 6.04, SD = 1.26) reported a higher willingness to seek help from teachers than those in the static peer norm condition (M = 4.54, SD= 2.03) and the no future-growth dynamic peer norms condition (M = 4.94, SD = 1.91; Experiment 2b). (4) Preconformity partially mediates the relationship between dynamic peer norms and students’ willingness to seek help from teachers, indirect effect scores =.16, 95% CI = [.03,.34]; indirect effect percentages =.12, 95% CI = [.02,.28] (Experiment 2c).
Our findings suggest that dynamic peer norms can increase students’ willingness to seek teacher intervention in bullying situations by fostering preconformity. To reduce the prevalence of school bullying, schools and educators are encouraged to implement strategies that motivate victims to seek help from teachers. For example, educators could highlight dynamic peer norms by showing the growing number of students who support seeking teacher assistance when bullied, thereby empowering victims to take action.
校园欺凌 / 求助教师意愿 / 动态同伴规范 / 静态同伴规范 / 预期遵从
school bullying / seeking help from teachers / dynamic peer norms / static peer norms / preconformity
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本文通过两个研究探讨了群体因素中的班级欺凌规范如何通过同辈压力、群体害怕影响欺凌行为的发生。研究1为实验研究, 被试为186名小学高年级学生(M<sub>age</sub> = 11.36 ± 0.99岁)。结果表明在不同情境(欺凌/非欺凌)的启动下, 各变量得分均具有显著差异; 进一步分析仅发现同辈压力的中介作用边缘显著。研究2为相关研究, 943名小学高年级及初二学生(M<sub>age</sub> = 12.00 ± 1.32岁)填写班级欺凌规范、同辈压力和欺凌行为问卷。HLM分析显示同辈压力在班级欺凌规范与欺凌行为起显著中介作用。
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Exposure to bullying affects around 3-5 percent of adolescents in secondary school and is related to various mental health problems. Many different anti-bullying programmes are currently available, but economic evaluations are lacking. The aim of this study is to identify the cost effectiveness of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (OBPP). We constructed a decision-tree model for a Swedish secondary school, using a public payer perspective, and retrieved data on costs and effects from the published literature. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis to reflect the uncertainty in the model was conducted. The base-case analysis showed that using the OBPP to reduce the number of victims of bullying costs 131,250 Swedish kronor (€14,470) per victim spared. Compared to a relevant threshold of the societal value of bullying reduction, this indicates that the programme is cost-effective. Using a relevant willingness-to-pay threshold shows that the OBPP is a cost-effective intervention.Copyright © 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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We examined student- and context-related factors related to whether bullied students tell adults about their plight at school or at home. The sample included 1,266 students in primary (Grades 4-6) and lower secondary (Grades 8-9) schools, who had answered an online questionnaire at two measurement points about 5 months apart and were identified as victims of bullying on the basis of the latter. Only 55.4% of the bullied students had told their situation to someone, and much fewer had told an adult. Telling an adult at home was more common (34.0%) than telling a teacher (20.6%) or some other adult at school (12.7%). In a longitudinal structural equation model (SEM), factors related to increased likelihood of telling an adult were female gender, lower grade level, the chronicity of victimization, perceived negative teacher attitude towards bullying (teacher not tolerating bullying), and perceived peer support for victims (classmates' tendency to defend students who are victimized).© 2019 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology published by Scandinavian Psychological Associations and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Many adolescents choose not to tell teachers when they have been bullied. Three studies with 12–16 year‐old English adolescents addressed possible reasons. In study 1, students (N = 411, 208 females/203 males) identified reasons with no prompting. Three perceived negative outcomes were common; peers would disapprove, disclosers would feel weak/undermined, and disclosers desired autonomy. In study 2, students (N = 297, 153 females/134 males/10 unspecified) indicated how much they believed that the perceived negative outcomes would happen to them, and a substantial proportion did so. Perceived negative outcomes significantly predicted intentions to disclose being bullied. Study 3 (N = 231, 100 females/131 males) tested if the perceived negative outcomes would be strong enough to stop participants from telling a teacher even though the teacher would stop the bullying. This was the case for many of them. Participants did not report disliking peers who disclosed bullying. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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Adding to the body of research that describes students who will bring weapons to school, the current research examined middle-school students' willingness to report when they know someone has a weapon at school. The sample included 1,957 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders from 27 schools in five states. Overall, a majority of students indicated that they would be willing to report; however, there were significant effects for the conditions of reporting (such as anonymity) and effects for some demographic characteristics. Furthermore, students who perceived adult or parental involvement in their lives were more willing to report. In contrast, students with delinquent involvement (self or peers) were significantly less likely to report the presence of weapons.
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This meta-analytic review of 148 studies on child and adolescent direct and indirect aggression examined the magnitude of gender differences, intercorrelations between forms, and associations with maladjustment. Results confirmed prior findings of gender differences (favoring boys) in direct aggression and trivial gender differences in indirect aggression. Results also indicated a substantial intercorrelation (r =.76) between these forms. Despite this high intercorrelation, the 2 forms showed unique associations with maladjustment: Direct aggression is more strongly related to externalizing problems, poor peer relations, and low prosocial behavior, and indirect aggression is related to internalizing problems and higher prosocial behavior. Moderation of these effect sizes by method of assessment, age, gender, and several additional variables were systematically investigated.
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Human choices are remarkably susceptible to the manner in which options are presented. This so-called "framing effect" represents a striking violation of standard economic accounts of human rationality, although its underlying neurobiology is not understood. We found that the framing effect was specifically associated with amygdala activity, suggesting a key role for an emotional system in mediating decision biases. Moreover, across individuals, orbital and medial prefrontal cortex activity predicted a reduced susceptibility to the framing effect. This finding highlights the importance of incorporating emotional processes within models of human choice and suggests how the brain may modulate the effect of these biasing influences to approximate rationality.
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Given the near-historic levels of economic inequality in the United States, it is vital to understand when and why people are motivated to reduce it. We examine whether the manner in which economic inequality and policy are framed-in terms of either upper-socio-economic-class advantages or lower-socio-economic-class disadvantages-influences individuals' reactions to inequality. Across five studies, framing redistributive policy (Study 1) as disadvantage-reducing (versus advantage-reducing) and economic inequality (Studies 2-5) as lower-class disadvantages (versus upper-class advantages or a control frame) enhances support for action to reduce inequality. Moreover, increased support is partly driven by perceptions that inequality is more unjust if framed as lower-class disadvantages. Using diverse methodologies (for example, social media engagement on Facebook) and nationally representative samples of self-reported upper-class and lower-class individuals, this work suggests that the ways in which economic inequality is communicated (for example, by the media) may reliably influence people's reactions to and concern for the issue.
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G*Power is a free power analysis program for a variety of statistical tests. We present extensions and improvements of the version introduced by Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, and Buchner (2007) in the domain of correlation and regression analyses. In the new version, we have added procedures to analyze the power of tests based on (1) single-sample tetrachoric correlations, (2) comparisons of dependent correlations, (3) bivariate linear regression, (4) multiple linear regression based on the random predictor model, (5) logistic regression, and (6) Poisson regression. We describe these new features and provide a brief introduction to their scope and handling.
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Forecasted probabilities rarely stay the same for long. Instead, they are subject to constant revision-moving upward or downward, uncertain events become more or less likely. Yet little is known about how people interpret probability estimates beyond static snapshots, like a 30% chance of rain. Here, we consider the cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences of revisions to probability forecasts. Stemming from a lay belief that revisions signal the emergence of a trend, we find in 10 studies (comprising uncertain events such as weather, climate change, sex, sports, and wine) that upward changes to event-probability (e.g., increasing from 20% to 30%) cause events to feel less remote than downward changes (e.g., decreasing from 40% to 30%), and subsequently change people's behavior regarding those events despite the revised event-probabilities being the same. Our research sheds light on how revising the probabilities for future events changes how people manage those uncertain events. (PsycINFO Database Record(c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved).
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The present research examines psychological momentum (PM), a perceived force that lay intuition suggests influences performance. PM theory is proposed to account for how momentum perceptions arise, and four studies demonstrate the influence of lay intuitions about PM on expectations regarding performance outcomes. Study 1 establishes that individuals share intuitions about the types of events that precipitate PM, and Study 2 finds that defeating a rival increases momentum perceptions. Study 3 provides evidence for the lay belief that as more PM accumulates during a prior task, there should be more residual momentum left to carry over to a subsequent task, and Study 4 finds that an individual whose PM is interrupted is expected to have greater difficulty completing a task than is an individual whose steady progress is interrupted. Discussion focuses on linkages between PM and related constructs.
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Much research has shown that intergroup contact is associated with a reduction in prejudice. Far less attention has been paid to the conditions that promote intergroup contact. This research explored the role of normative social influence in predicting contact engagement (total N = 1,538). Cross-sectional Study 1 found that individuals’ perception of descriptive levels of intergroup contact amongst the ingroup predicted their own contact engagement whilst controlling for outgroup attitudes. Study 2 and Study 3 demonstrated that an experimental manipulation of descriptive norms promoted outgroup approach intentions, and actual approach behaviour. Participants were more open to future intergroup contact when they learnt of the high prevalence of this behaviour amongst the ingroup. Study 4 then considered how normative techniques could be used when intergroup contact is not commonplace. Together, the findings provide a new understanding of the antecedents of intergroup contact and new techniques for encouraging greater inclusion and integration.
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If many people currently engage in a behavior, others are likely to follow suit. The current article extends research on these descriptive norms to examine the unique effect of trending norms: norms in which the number of people engaging in a behavior is increasing-and even if this is only among a minority of people: trending minority norms. The current research shows people conform more to these trending minority norms than a minority norm alone, or a no norm control condition-even though the norms addressed behaviors that differed from the target behavior. This demonstrates a distinct effect of trends and a strategy for leveraging normative information to increase conformity to behaviors not yet performed by a majority. Findings support that this increased conformity emerges because people predict the increase in prevalence will continue. An internal meta-analysis examining all data we collected on this topic supports these conclusions.
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Identifying causal mechanisms has become a cornerstone of experimental social psychology, and editors in top social psychology journals champion the use of mediation methods, particularly innovative ones when possible (e.g. Halberstadt, 2010, Smith, 2012). Commonly, studies in experimental social psychology randomly assign participants to levels of the independent variable and measure the mediating and dependent variables, and the mediator is assumed to causally affect the dependent variable. However, participants are not randomly assigned to levels of the mediating variable(s), i.e., the relationship between the mediating and dependent variables is correlational. Although researchers likely know that correlational studies pose a risk of confounding, this problem seems forgotten when thinking about experimental designs randomly assigning participants to levels of the independent variable and measuring the mediator (i.e., "measurement-of-mediation" designs). Experimentally manipulating the mediator provides an approach to solving these problems, yet these methods contain their own set of challenges (e.g., Bullock, Green, & Ha, 2010). We describe types of experimental manipulations targeting the mediator (manipulations demonstrating a causal effect of the mediator on the dependent variable and manipulations targeting the strength of the causal effect of the mediator) and types of experimental designs (double randomization, concurrent double randomization, and parallel), provide published examples of the designs, and discuss the strengths and challenges of each design. Therefore, the goals of this paper include providing a practical guide to manipulation-of-mediator designs in light of their challenges and encouraging researchers to use more rigorous approaches to mediation because manipulation-of-mediator designs strengthen the ability to infer causality of the mediating variable on the dependent variable.
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School bullying is a growing concern in almost all developed economies, bringing negative and serious consequences for those students involved in the role of victims. In this paper, we propose to analyze this topic for the case of Spain, considering the data compiled in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) report in 2018. The sample size consists of 12,549 15-old-year students (51.84% females and 48.16% males). With the help of structural equation models (SEM), we aim to detect the relationship between the risk of being a victim of bullying and several self-appreciations expressed by the students. We have considered variables that try to measure individual perceptions in several aspects, such as the self-image, the help provided by parents and teachers and how the school environment’s safety is perceived. A multigroup analysis was also performed to see the impact of the socioeconomic level of the families and the students’ academic performances on the proposed model. We conclude that several of those aspects are directly related with the risk of being bullied and this risk is higher in those students who present school failure and have a lower socioeconomic status. In this regard, the results would permit pointing out some aspects in which the decision-makers can focus their proposals to establish prevention measures.
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Socio-ecological models of victimization reporting incorporate normative constraints and instrumental considerations at the individual and contextual levels. Drawing on this model, we explore factors related to students’ willingness to report problem behaviors that they might observe in school. Data obtained from student and teacher/administrator surveys and administrative data are used to explore these relationships. We find that individual-level factors are the primary determinants of reporting attitudes, but school context is also important. Students are more willing to report misbehavior in schools with democratic authority structures and consistent enforcement of school rules. Attitudes toward reporting are less favorable when the school culture is supportive of a street code, and the effect of street code culture is fully explained by students’ personal norms and experiences. We also find evidence that personal adherence to a street code moderates the effect of school context on reporting attitudes. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
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It is well known that people conform to normative information about other people's current attitudes and behaviors. Do they also conform to dynamic norms-information about how other people's behavior is changing over time? We investigated this question in three online and two field experiments. Experiments 1 through 4 examined high levels of meat consumption, a normative and salient behavior that is decreasing in the United States. Dynamic norms motivated change despite prevailing static norms, increasing interest in eating less meat (Experiments 1-3) and doubling meatless orders at a café (Experiment 4). Mediators included the anticipation of less meat eating in the future (preconformity) and the inference that reducing meat consumption mattered to other people (Experiments 2 and 3). In Experiment 5, we took advantage of a natural comparison to provide evidence that dynamic norms can also strengthen social-norm interventions when the static norm is positive; a positive dynamic norm resulted in reduced laundry loads and water use over 3 weeks during a drought.
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Recent research has found that dynamic norms information about collective change in behavior can promote meaningful personal behavior change, even if that behavior is not currently the norm. Through what psychological processes do dynamic norms operate? We theorized that, when others change, it can lead observers to infer that whatever factors had loomed large as barriers to change do not, in fact, prevent change. If so, dynamic norms may alter diverse salient mechanisms of personal change, and encourage behavior change in diverse contexts. Investigating four domains smokers' intention to quit, dietary choice, sleep-related behavior, and men's identification as feminist-Experiments 1-4 found that dynamic norms affected three well-established mechanisms of personal behavior change across contexts: the belief that personal change is possible (increased self-efficacy), the belief that change is important to others (injunctive norms), and the belief that change is compatible with one's social identity. In each case, change in the psychological process also statistically mediated change in personal interest and intentions to change. Experiment 5 tested our hypothesis that psychological barriers that loom large would be remedied most. Manipulating the salience of all three barriers within a single context, we found that dynamic norms had a larger impact on salient than less salient barriers. The results suggest that dynamic norms can help resolve diverse psychological barriers to encourage personal change, especially salient barriers. They may thus be a particularly robust source of social influence across contexts.
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The current study presented 1,933 adolescents from 13 schools with a scenario about a hypothetical peer's plan to "do something dangerous" at school and asked how likely they would be to respond with four different actions: intervene directly, tell a teacher or principal, discuss it with a friend but not an adult, and do nothing. High school students were less likely than those in middle school to say they would approach the peer directly or confide in a teacher or principal. Students were most likely to favor taking action on their own over all of the other response strategies. Students with positive perceptions of their schools were more likely to say they would do something rather than ignore their peer's dangerous intentions. These relationships were mediated by students' beliefs that confiding in a teacher may have unfavorable consequences. Findings from this study support the important role schools play in creating a culture where students take responsibility for one another.
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People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person's perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance is egocentric: Its reference point is the self in the here and now, and the different ways in which an object might be removed from that point-in time, in space, in social distance, and in hypotheticality-constitute different distance dimensions. Transcending the self in the here and now entails mental construal, and the farther removed an object is from direct experience, the higher (more abstract) the level of construal of that object. Supporting this analysis, research shows (a) that the various distances are cognitively related to each other, (b) that they similarly influence and are influenced by level of mental construal, and (c) that they similarly affect prediction, preference, and action.PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved.
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This study aimed to investigate the process of disclosing bullying victimization from the former victims’ point of view. Twenty-three individuals with prior experience of victimization at school were interviewed. A grounded theory approach was used to analyze the data, which generated a grounded theory of help-seeking in victimization, comprising factors and conditions that influenced the willingness to ask for help when bullied. We concentrated on disclosure barriers and facilitators in a school context to identify important factors, which comprised type of peer harassment, type and form of initial attack, perception of available support at school, and perception of peer support. In terms of the practical implications of the present study, the identification of disclosure tendencies could provide a basis for developing school policies to facilitate disclosure.
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