The Impact of Mental Imagery on Fear and its Neural Mechanisms

Jin Yumeng; Wang Yizhen; Zhang Jie; Wang Jinxia; Dou Haoran; Zhang Huoyin; Lei Yi

doi:10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240601

PDF(370 KB)

Journal of Psychological Science ›› 2024, Vol. 47 ›› Issue (6) : 1282-1292. DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240601

General Psychology，Experimental Psychology & Ergonomics

The Impact of Mental Imagery on Fear and its Neural Mechanisms

Jin Yumeng¹, Wang Yizhen², Zhang Jie², Wang Jinxia¹, Dou Haoran¹, Zhang Huoyin^1,3, Lei Yi¹

Author information +

History +

Abstract

Anxiety is a prevalent emotional disorder that can be divided into several subtypes, including generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder, all of which are characterized by fear as the primary emotional component. Mental imagery, a complex cognitive phenomenon, is characterized by the generation of sensory representations in the absence of direct sensory input, and is particularly relevant to the study of visual perception and its associated neural correlates. The current review examines the role of visual mental imagery in the context of fear and anxiety, its neural underpinnings, and potential therapeutic applications.
The discussion of the relation between mental imagery and fear begins by examining the impact of mental imagery on fear with respect to its defining attributes, neural substrates, and the temporal course of its manifestation. Research has revealed that mental imagery, serving as a "simulation" akin to actual visual perception, engages a multitude of brain regions that are identical to those activated during genuine sensory experiences. Consequently, this mental simulation exerts equivalent effects on the induction and modulation of fear responses. The neural underpinnings of this phenomenon implicate a complex interplay between the sensory cortices. Visual mental imagery is known to engage the primary visual cortex (V1, V2, and V3), with a robust body of neuroimaging research highlighting the similarities in neural activation patterns between actual visual perception and mental imagery. The vividness and modifiability of mental imagery are critical in shaping emotional responses, particularly fear, which is a cardinal feature of various anxiety disorders. Individuals with anxiety-related conditions may exhibit exaggerated fear responses to innocuous stimuli due to the involuntary generation of threatening mental images that are closely linked to their core fears and can provoke both physiological and emotional responses. The neural substrates of mental imagery have been extensively investigated, with studies demonstrating that the primary visual cortex is involved in processing both actual visual stimuli and mental imagery. The cortical surface area of V1 has been found to be negatively correlated with the intensity of mental imagery, suggesting a role in the modulation of imagery vividness. The temporal dynamics of mental imagery have been studied using event-related potentials (ERPs), revealing early neural activities associated with face recognition, such as the N170 component, which occurs around 170ms post-stimulus onset. The integration of top-down imagery signals with bottom-up perceptual signals is reflected in the P2 component (200ms-260ms). Furthermore, the early posterior negativity (EPN) and late positive potential (LPP) components have been implicated in the emotional response associated with mental imagery, with enhanced activity observed during the processing of negative mental imagery.
Additionally, the recruitment of other brain regions, such as the hippocampus and amygdala, during mental imagery processing points to a distributed neural network underlying the generation of imagery related to fear. Mental imagery has been shown to influence the acquisition, generalization, and extinction of conditioned fear responses. Fear conditioning, a well-established paradigm in the study of fear and anxiety, involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus (CS) with an aversive stimulus (US), leading to the development of a conditioned response (CR) to the CS in the absence of the US. Research has indicated that mental imagery can facilitate the acquisition of fear, with the imagined presence of a threat capable of eliciting a fear response similar to that provoked by actual perception. Moreover, fear acquired through perception can generalize to mental imagery, thereby perpetuating the cycle of fear in individuals with anxiety-related disorders. Subsequently, clinical interventions utilizing mental imagery, such as imaginal exposure and imagery rescripting, have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders. Imaginal exposure involves the repetitive presentation of fear-related mental images to attenuate the distress associated with fear memories. Imagery rescripting allows individuals to alter the narrative of traumatic memories by envisioning a new, safer outcome, thereby modifying the emotional significance of the memory. Both approaches have shown promise in reducing fear and improving symptoms associated with anxiety-related disorders.
Finally, acknowledging the limitations of current research within the conditioned fear paradigm, the discussion shifts towards the potential for future studies to further explore the neural mechanisms and clinical interventions related to fear learning from the perspective of mental imagery. This approach could provide novel insights into the intricate interplay between mental imagery and fear, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and neural processes that underlie fear conditioning and its modulation. By leveraging the unique advantages of mental imagery as a research tool, future studies can contribute to the development of more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of fear-related disorders, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of clinical interventions and improving patient outcomes.
In conclusion, mental imagery represents an important avenue for understanding and treating anxiety-related psychological conditions. The vividness and malleability of mental imagery, its neural correlates, and its impact on fear learning and extinction offer valuable insights for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. Future research endeavors should focus on delineating the neural mechanisms underlying mental imagery in the context of fear generalization and extinction, investigating the effects of vivid mental imagery on fear, and examining the differential neural activation patterns between individuals with anxiety-related disorders and healthy controls during the processing of fear-related mental imagery. These investigations have the potential to enhance our understanding of the role of mental imagery in fear and anxiety, thereby informing the development of more effective treatment strategies.

Key words

mental imagery / fear conditioning / imaginal exposure

Cite this article

EndNote

Ris (Procite)

Bibtex

Download Citations

Jin Yumeng, Wang Yizhen, Zhang Jie, Wang Jinxia, Dou Haoran, Zhang Huoyin, Lei Yi. The Impact of Mental Imagery on Fear and its Neural Mechanisms[J]. Journal of Psychological Science. 2024, 47(6): 1282-1292 https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240601

References

[1] Adhikari A., Lerner T. N., Finkelstein J., Pak S., Jennings J. H., Davidson T. J., & Deisseroth K. (2015). Basomedial amygdala mediates top-down control of anxiety and fear. Nature, 527(7577), 179-185.
[2] Agren T., Björkstrand J., & Fredrikson M. (2017). Disruption of human fear reconsolidation using imaginal and in vivo extinction. Behavioural Brain Research, 319, 9-15.
[3] Agren T., Hoppe J. M., Singh L., Holmes E. A., & Rosén J. (2023). The neural basis of Tetris gameplay: Implicating the role of visuospatial processing. Current Psychology, 42(10), 8156-8163.
[4] Bauer, E. A., & MacNamara, A. (2021). Comorbid anxiety and depression: Opposing effects on the electrocortical processing of negative imagery in a focal fear sample. Depression and Anxiety, 38(7), 690-699.
[5] Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 49-58.
[6] Behrendt R. P. (2013). Hippocampus and consciousness. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 24(3), 239-266.
[7] Bergmann J., Genç E., Kohler A., Singer W., & Pearson J. (2016). Smaller primary visual cortex is associated with stronger, but less precise mental imagery. Cerebral Cortex, 26(9), 3838-3850.
[8] Blackwell, S. E. (2021). Mental imagery in the science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy: Past, present, and future perspectives. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 14(1), 160-181.
[9] Blackwell S. E., Dooley D., Würtz F., Woud M. L., & Margraf J. (2020). Inducing positive involuntary mental imagery in everyday life: An experimental investigation. Memory, 28(9), 1157-1172.
[10] Borkovec, T. D. (1985). Worry: A potentially valuable concept. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23(4), 481-482.
[11] Borst, G., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2010). Fear selectively modulates visual mental imagery and visual perception. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63(5), 833-839.
[12] Brewin C. R., Gregory J. D., Lipton M., & Burgess N. (2010). Intrusive images in psychological disorders: Characteristics, neural mechanisms, and treatment implications. Psychological Review, 117(1), 210-232.
[13] Brogaard, B., & Gatzia, D. E. (2017). Unconscious imagination and the mental imagery debate. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 799.
[14] Burkhardt A., Buff C., Brinkmann L., Feldker K., Gathmann B., Hofmann D., & Straube T. (2019). Brain activation during disorder-related script-driven imagery in panic disorder: A pilot study. Scientific Reports, 9(1), Article 2415.
[15] Burleigh, L., & Greening, S. G. (2023). Fear in the mind' s eye: The neural correlates of differential fear acquisition to imagined conditioned stimuli. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 18(1), Article nsac063.
[16] Burleigh L., Jiang X. R., & Greening S. G. (2022). Fear in the theater of the mind: Differential fear conditioning with imagined stimuli. Psychological Science, 33(9), 1423-1439.
[17] Chen S. Q., Yao N. S., & Qian M. Y. (2018). The influence of uncertainty and intolerance of uncertainty on anxiety. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 61, 60-65.
[18] Chiu K., Clark D. M., & Leigh E. (2022). Characterising negative mental imagery in adolescent social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 46(5), 956-966.
[19] Clark, I. A., & Mackay, C. E. (2015). Mental imagery and post-traumatic stress disorder: A neuroimaging and experimental psychopathology approach to intrusive memories of trauma. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, Article 104.
[20] Cusack K., Jonas D. E., Forneris C. A., Wines C., Sonis J., Middleton J. C., & Gaynes B. N. (2016). Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 43, 128-141.
[21] de Borst, A.W., & de Gelder, B. (2019). Mental imagery follows similar cortical reorganization as perception: Intra-modal and cross-modal plasticity in congenitally blind. Cerebral Cortex, 29(7), 2859-2875.
[22] de Haan, K. L. B., Lee C. W., Fassbinder E., van Es S. M., Menninga S., Meewisse M. L., & Arntz A. (2020). Imagery rescripting and eye movement desensitisation and reprocessing as treatment for adults with post-traumatic stress disorder from childhood trauma: Randomised clinical trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 217(5), 609-615.
[23] Di Corrado D., Guarnera M., Guerrera C. S., Maldonato N. M., Di Nuovo S., Castellano S., & Coco M. (2020). Mental imagery skills in competitive young athletes and non-athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 633.
[24] Dibbets P., Lemmens A., & Voncken M. (2018). Turning negative memories around: Contingency versus devaluation techniques. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 60, 5-12.
[25] Dibbets P., Poort H., & Arntz A. (2012). Adding imagery rescripting during extinction leads to less ABA renewal. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(1), 614-624.
[26] Dou H. R., Lei Y., Pan Y. F., Li H., & Astikainen P. (2022). Impact of observational and direct learning on fear conditioning and generalization in humans. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 121, Article 110650.
[27] Dunsmoor, J. E., & Paz, R. (2015). Fear generalization and anxiety: Behavioral and neural mechanisms. Biological Psychiatry, 78(5), 336-343.
[28] Dymond S., Dunsmoor J. E., Vervliet B., Roche B., & Hermans D. (2015). Fear generalization in humans: Systematic review and implications for anxiety disorder research. Behavior Therapy, 46(5), 561-582.
[29] Espinosa L., Bonsall M. B., Becker N., Holmes E. A., & Olsson A. (2022). Pavlovian threat conditioning can generate intrusive memories that persist over time. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 157, Article 104161.
[30] Feng Y. C., Krahé C., Meeten F., Sumich A., Mok C. L. M., & Hirsch C. R. (2020). Impact of imagery-enhanced interpretation training on offline and online interpretations in worry. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 124, Article 103497.
[31] Fernández-Ruiz A., Oliva A., de Oliveira E. F., Rocha-Almeida F., Tingley D., & Buzsáki G. (2019). Long-duration hippocampal sharp wave ripples improve memory. Science, 364(6445), 1082-1086.
[32] Gagnepain P., Hulbert J., & Anderson M. C. (2017). Parallel regulation of memory and emotion supports the suppression of intrusive memories. Journal of Neuroscience, 37(27), 6423-6441.
[33] Ganella D. E., Barendse M. E. A., Kim J. H., & Whittle S. (2017). Prefrontal-amygdala connectivity and state anxiety during fear extinction recall in adolescents. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, Article 587.
[34] Ganis, G., & Schendan, H. E. (2008). Visual mental imagery and perception produce opposite adaptation effects on early brain potentials. NeuroImage, 42(4), 1714-1727.
[35] Gravano S., Lacquaniti F., & Zago M. (2021). Mental imagery of object motion in weightlessness. NPJ microgravity, 7(1), 50.
[36] Grégoire, L., & Greening, S. G. (2019). Opening the reconsolidation window using the mind' s eye: Extinction training during reconsolidation disrupts fear memory expression following mental imagery reactivation. Cognition, 183, 277-281.
[37] Greening S. G., Lee T. H., Burleigh L., Grégoire L., Robinson T., Jiang X. R., & Kaplan J. (2022). Mental imagery can generate and regulate acquired differential fear conditioned reactivity. Scientific Reports, 12(1), Article 997.
[38] Guarnera M., Buccheri S. L., Castellano S., Di Corrado D., & Di Nuovo S. (2019). Social anxiety and mental imagery processes. Clinical Neuropsychiatry: Journal of Treatment Evaluation, 16(4), 173-181.
[39] Hagenaars, M. A., & Arntz, A. (2012). Reduced intrusion development after post-trauma imagery rescripting; An experimental study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(2), 808-814.
[40] Hagenaars M. A., Mesbah R., & Cremers H. (2015). Mental imagery affects subsequent automatic defense responses. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, Article 73.
[41] Han S. Z., Li X. X., Wei S. C., Zhao D., Ding J.J., Xu Y. M., & Yuan T. F. (2023). Orbitofrontal cortex-hippocampus potentiation mediates relief for depression: A randomized double-blind trial and TMS-EEG study. Cell Reports Medicine, 4(6), Article 101060.
[42] Hermans D., Craske M. G., Mineka S., & Lovibond P. F. (2006). Extinction in human fear conditioning. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 361-368.
[43] Herz N., Bar-Haim Y., Tavor I., Tik N., Sharon H., Holmes E. A., & Censor N. (2022). Neuromodulation of visual cortex reduces the intensity of intrusive memories. Cerebral Cortex, 32(2), 408-417.
[44] Hirsch C. R., Perman G., Hayes S., Eagleson C., & Mathews A. (2015). Delineating the role of negative verbal thinking in promoting worry, perceived threat, and anxiety. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(4), 637-647.
[45] Holmes, E. A., & Mathews, A. (2005). Mental imagery and emotion: A special relationship? Emotion, 5(4), 489-497.
[46] Holmes E. A., Lang T. J., & Deeprose C. (2009). Mental imagery and emotion in treatment across disorders: Using the example of depression. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 38(1), 21-28.
[47] Hoppe J. M., Holmes E. A., & Agren T. (2021). Exploring the neural basis of fear produced by mental imagery: Imaginal exposure in individuals fearful of spiders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1817), Article 20190690.
[48] Hoppe J. M., Holmes E. A., & Agren T. (2022). Imaginal extinction and the vividness of mental imagery: Exploring the reduction of fear within the mind' s eye. Behavioural Brain Research, 418, Article 113632.
[49] Huang J. C., Wang T., Dai W. F., Li Y., Yang Y., Zhang Y. G., & Xing D. J. (2024). Neuronal representation of visual working memory content in the primate primary visual cortex. Science Advances, 10(24), Article eadk3953.
[50] Hunt M., Bylsma L., Brock J., Fenton M., Goldberg A., Miller R., & Urgelles J. (2006). The role of imagery in the maintenance and treatment of snake fear. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 37(4), 283-298.
[51] Hunt, M., & Fenton, M. (2007). Imagery rescripting versus in vivo exposure in the treatment of snake fear. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38(4), 329-344.
[52] Ji J. L., Heyes S. B., MacLeod C., & Holmes E. A. (2016). Emotional mental imagery as simulation of reality: Fear and beyond-a tribute to peter lang. Behavior Therapy, 47(5), 702-719.
[53] Ji J. L., Kavanagh D. J., Holmes E. A., MacLeod C., & Di Simplicio M. (2019). Mental imagery in psychiatry: Conceptual & clinical implications. CNS Spectrums, 24(1), 114-126.
[54] Jiang, X. R., & Greening, S. G. (2021). Psychophysiological evidence for fear extinction learning via mental imagery. Psychophysiology, 58(11), Article e13906.
[55] Joos E., Vansteenwegen D., & Hermans D. (2012). Post-acquisition repetitive thought in fear conditioning: An experimental investigation of the effect of CS-US-rehearsal. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(2), 737-744.
[56] Kaltner, S., & Jansen, P. (2014). Emotion and affect in mental imagery: Do fear and anxiety manipulate mental rotation performance? Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 792.
[57] Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2011). Mental imagery and visual working memory. PLoS ONE, 6(12), Article e29221.
[58] Keogh, R., & Pearson, J. (2014). The sensory strength of voluntary visual imagery predicts visual working memory capacity. Journal of Vision, 14(12), Article 7.
[59] Kindt M., Buck N., Arntz A., & Soeter M. (2007). Perceptual and conceptual processing as predictors of treatment outcome in PTSD. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38(4), 491-506.
[60] Kunze A. E., Arntz A., & Kindt M. (2019). Investigating the effects of imagery rescripting on emotional memory: A series of analogue studies. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 10(2), 1-22.
[61] Landkroon E., van Dis, E. A. M., Meyerbröker K., Salemink E., Hagenaars M. A., & Engelhard I. M. (2022). Future-oriented positive mental imagery reduces anxiety for exposure to public speaking. Behavior Therapy, 53(1), 80-91.
[62] Lang, P. J. (2016). Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear-republished article. Behavior Therapy, 47(5), 688-701.
[63] Langkaas T. F., Hoffart A., Øktedalen T., Ulvenes P. G., Hembree E. A., & Smucker M. (2017). Exposure and non-fear emotions: A randomized controlled study of exposure-based and rescripting-based imagery in PTSD treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 97, 33-42.
[64] Lawrence H. R., Balkind E. G., Ji J. L., Burke T. A., & Liu R. T. (2023). Mental imagery of suicide and non-suicidal self-injury: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 103, Article 102302.
[65] Lewis D. E., O' Reilly M. J., Khuu S. K., & Pearson J. (2013). Conditioning the mind' s eye: Associative learning with voluntary mental imagery. Clinical Psychological Science, 1(4), 390-400.
[66] Li S. Y., Zeng X. M., Shao Z. J., & Yu Q. (2023). Neural representations in visual and parietal cortex differentiate between imagined, perceived, and illusory experiences. The Journal of Neuroscience, 43(38), 6508-6524.
[67] Lipp O. V., Waters A. M., Luck C. C., Ryan K. M., & Craske M. G. (2020). Novel approaches for strengthening human fear extinction: The roles of novelty, additional USs, and additional GSs. Behav Resiour Research and Therapy, 124, Article 103529.
[68] Lissek S., Bradford D. E., Alvarez R. P., Burton P., Espensen-Sturges T., Reynolds R. C., & Grillon C. (2014). Neural substrates of classically conditioned fear-generalization in humans: A parametric fMRI study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9(8), 1134-1142.
[69] López-Pérez M. E., Pino-Juste M., & Campos A. (2022). Mental imagery and anxiety toward death in adolescents. Death Studies, 46(8), 1891-1896.
[70] Lu L. X., Zhang C. X., & Li L. (2017). Mental imagery of face enhances face-sensitive event-related potentials to ambiguous visual stimuli. Biological Psychology, 129, 16-24.
[71] MacNamara, A. (2018). In the mind's eye: The late positive potential to negative and neutral mental imagery and intolerance of uncertainty. Psychophysiology, 55(5), Article e13024.
[72] Malcolm C. P., Picchioni M. M., & Ellett L. (2015). Intrusive prospective imagery, posttraumatic intrusions and anxiety in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 230(3), 899-904.
[73] Maren, S. (2001). Neurobiology of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 24, 897-931.
[74] McCarthy A., Bank S. R., Campbell B. N. C., Summers M., Burgess M., & McEvoy P. (2022). An investigation of cognitive and affective changes during group imagery rescripting for social anxiety disorder. Behavior Therapy, 53(5), 1050-1061.
[75] McEvoy P. M., Hyett M. P., Bank S. R., Erceg-Hurn D. M., Johnson A. R., Kyron M. J., & Rapee R. M. (2022). Imagery-enhanced v. verbally-based group cognitive behavior therapy for social anxiety disorder: A randomized clinical trial. Psychological Medicine, 52(7), 1277-1286.
[76] McLean C. P., Levy H. C., Miller M. L., & Tolin D. F. (2022). Exposure therapy for PTSD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 91, Article 102115.
[77] Mertens G., Krypotos A. M., & Engelhard I. M. (2020). A review on mental imagery in fear conditioning research 100 years since the 'Little Albert' study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 126, Article 103556.
[78] Meulders A., Harvie D. S., Lorimer Moseley G., & Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2015). Generalization of pain-related fear using a left-right hand judgment conditioning task. Behavior Therapy, 46(5), 699-716.
[79] Meulders, A., & Vlaeyen, J. W. S. (2013). Mere intention to perform painful movements elicits fear of movement-related pain: An experimental study on fear acquisition beyond actual movements. The Journal of Pain, 14(4), 412-423.
[80] Michopoulos V., Powers A., Gillespie C. F., Ressler K. J., & Jovanovic T. (2017). Inflammation in fear-and anxiety-based disorders: PTSD, GAD, and beyond. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(1), 254-270.
[81] Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2018). Anxiety and threat-related attention: Cognitive-motivational framework and treatment. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(3), 225-240.
[82] Monzel M., Vetterlein A., & Reuter M. (2023). No general pathological significance of aphantasia: An evaluation based on criteria for mental disorders. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64(3), 314-324.
[83] Morina N., Deeprose C., Pusowski C., Schmid M., & Holmes E. A. (2011). Prospective mental imagery in patients with major depressive disorder or anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(8), 1032-1037.
[84] Mueller E. M., Sperl M. F. J., & Panitz C. (2019). Aversive imagery causes de novo fear conditioning. Psychological Science, 30(7), 1001-1015.
[85] Nanay, B. (2021). Unconscious mental imagery. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1817), 1-9.
[86] Nitta Y., Takahashi T., & Kumano H. (2019). Relation between Imagery Rescripting of Fear Memory and Memory Reconsolidation. Anxiety Disorder Research, 11(1), 2-12.
[87] Oliva A., Fernández-Ruiz A., Leroy F., & Siegelbaum S. A. (2020). Hippocampal CA2 sharp-wave ripples reactivate and promote social memory. Nature, 587(7833), 264-269.
[88] Paulik G., Maloney G., Arntz A., Bachrach N., Koppeschaar A., & McEvoy P. (2021). Delivering imagery rescripting via telehealth: Clinical concerns, benefits, and recommendations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(5), Article 24.
[89] Pearson, J. (2019). The human imagination: The cognitive neuroscience of visual mental imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 20(10), 624-634.
[90] Pearson J., Naselaris T., Holmes E. A., & Kosslyn S. M. (2015). Mental imagery: Functional mechanisms and clinical applications. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(10), 590-602.
[91] Pearson J., Rademaker R. L., & Tong F. (2011). Evaluating the mind' s eye. Psychological Science, 22(12), 1535-1542.
[92] Pearson J., & Westbrook F., (2015). Phantom perception: Voluntary and involuntary nonretinal vision. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(5), 278-284.
[93] Pile, V., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2019). Intrusive images of a distressing future: Links between prospective mental imagery, generalized anxiety and a tendency to suppress emotional experience in youth. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 124, Article 103508.
[94] Pile V., Williamson G., Saunders A., Holmes E. A., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2021). Harnessing emotional mental imagery to reduce anxiety and depression in young people: An integrative review of progress and promise. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(9), 836-852.
[95] Pratt D., Cooper M. D., & Hackmann A. (2004). Imagery and its characteristics in people who are anxious about spiders. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 32(2), 165-176.
[96] Reddan M. C., Wager T. D., & Schiller D. (2018). Attenuating neural threat expression with imagination. Neuron, 100(4), 994-1005.
[97] Renner F., Schwarz P., Peters M. L., & Huibers, M. J. H. (2014). Effects of a best-possible-self mental imagery exercise on mood and dysfunctional attitudes. Psychiatry Research, 215(1), 105-110.
[98] Renner F., Werthmann J., Paetsch A., Bär H. E., Heise M., & Bruijniks, S. J. E. (2021). Prospective mental imagery in depression: Impact on reward processing and reward-motivated behaviour. Clinical Psychology in Europe, 3(2), Article e3013.
[99] Rus-Calafell M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado J., Botella C., & Baños R. M. (2013). Virtual reality exposure and imaginal exposure in the treatment of fear of flying: A pilot study. Behavior Modification, 37(4), 568-590.
[100] Santos V. A., Carvalho D. D., van Ameringen M., Nardi A. E., & Freire R. C. (2019). Neuroimaging findings as predictors of treatment outcome of psychotherapy in anxiety disorders. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 91, 60-71.
[101] Schneider A., Andrade J., Tanja-Dijkstra K., & Moles D. R. (2018). Mental imagery in dentistry: Phenomenology and role in dental anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 58, 33-41.
[102] Schneider M., Walter H., Moessnang C., Schäfer A., Erk S., Mohnke S., & Tost H. (2017). Altered DLPFC-hippocampus connectivity during working memory: Independent replication and disorder specificity of a putative genetic risk phenotype for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(5), 1114-1122.
[103] Shemesh E., Annunziato R. A., Weatherley B. D., Cotter G., Feaganes J. R., Santra M., & Rubinstein D. (2011). A randomized controlled trial of the safety and promise of cognitive-behavioral therapy using imaginal exposure in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder resulting from cardiovascular illness. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(2), 168-174.
[104] Siegel P., Warren R., Wang Z. S., Yang J., Cohen D., Anderson J. F., & Peterson B. S. (2017). Less is more: Neural activity during very brief and clearly visible exposure to phobic stimuli. Human Brain Mapping, 38(5), 2466-2481.
[105] Starr, S., & Moulds, M. L. (2006). The role of negative interpretations of intrusive memories in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 93(1-3), 125-132.
[106] Stavropoulos L., Cooper D. D. J., Champion S. M., Keevers L., Newby J. M., & Grisham J. R. (2024). Basic processes and clinical applications of mental imagery in worry: A systematic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 110, Article 102427.
[107] Steil R., Fischer A., Gutermann J., & Rosner R. (2022). Mental imagery in adolescent PTSD patients after child abuse: A comparison with matched healthy controls. BMC Psychiatry, 22(1), Article 64.
[108] Stopa, L., & Jenkins, A. (2007). Images of the self in social anxiety: Effects on the retrieval of autobiographical memories. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38(4), 459-473.
[109] Strachan L. P., Hyett M. P., & McEvoy P. M. (2020). Imagery rescripting for anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder: Recent advances and future directions. Current Psychiatry Reports, 22(4), Article 17.
[110] Struyf D., Hermans D., & Vervliet B. (2018). Maximizing the generalization of fear extinction: Exposures to a peak generalization stimulus. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 111, 1-8.
[111] Suess, F., & Abdel Rahman, R. (2015). Mental imagery of emotions: Electrophysiological evidence. NeuroImage, 114, 147-157.
[112] Suggate, S., & Lenhard, W. (2022). Mental imagery skill predicts adults' reading performance. Learning and Instruction, 80, Article 101633.
[113] Thoresen J. C., Francelet R., Coltekin A., Richter K. F., Fabrikant S. I., & Sandi C. (2016). Not all anxious individuals get lost: Trait anxiety and mental rotation ability interact to explain performance in map-based route learning in men. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 132, 1-8.
[114] Tomasino B., Maggioni E., Piani M. C., Bonivento C., D' Agostini S., Balestrieri M., & Brambilla P. (2024). The mental simulation of state/psychological stimuli in anxiety disorders: A 3T fMRI study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 345, 435-442.
[115] van Dis, E. A. M., Hagenaars M. A., & Engelhard I. M. (2024). Mental threat rehearsal increases fear generalization. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 82, Article 101917.
[116] Wang J. X., Shen S. Y., Becker B., Tsang M. H. L., Mei Y., Wikgren J., & Lei Y. (2024). Neurocognitive mechanisms of mental imagery-based disgust learning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 175, Article 104502.
[117] Williams S. E., van Zanten, J. J. C. S. V., Trotman G. P., Quinton M. L., & Ginty A. T. (2017). Challenge and threat imagery manipulates heart rate and anxiety responses to stress. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 117, 111-118.
[118] Yamamoto, S., & Mukai, H. (1998). Event-related potentials during mental imagery. Neuroreport, 9(15), 3359-3362.
[119] Zhou Y., Pennesi J. L., & Wade T. D. (2020). Online imagery rescripting among young women at risk of developing an eating disorder: A randomized controlled trial. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 53(12), 1906-1917.