Tip-of-the-Pen Effect in Chinese Written Production

Lin Weihao; Yang Tingting; Zheng Guorui; Wang Ruiming

doi:10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260107

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Journal of Psychological Science ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (1) : 56-67. DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260107

General Psychology，Experimental Psychology & Ergonomics

Tip-of-the-Pen Effect in Chinese Written Production

Lin Weihao^1,2, Yang Tingting^1,2, Zheng Guorui^1,2, Wang Ruiming^1,2

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Abstract

The tip-of-the-pen (TOP) effect is a phenomenon in writing difficulty where individuals temporarily fail to retrieve the orthographic information of a known character. Recent research based on a large-scale Chinese character handwriting database has clearly defined and operationalized this effect and developed a standard character dictation paradigm to reliably elicit it. Despite these advancements, the TOP effect remains a relatively new area of study, and its cognitive mechanisms are not yet fully understood. This review aims to address these gaps by proposing a comprehensive model of the TOP effect, examining its occurrence stages and providing theoretical explanations for the first time.
Existing research has identified several factors influencing the TOP effect. Lexical variables at the character level, such as frequency, orthography, and phonology, significantly impact its occurrence. Characters that are less frequently used, learned later in life, or have more complex orthographic structures are more likely to trigger the TOP effect. The intricate stroke patterns and structural rules of Chinese characters make them particularly prone to this phenomenon. Additionally, individual differences such as daily typing and writing frequency also play a crucial role. A higher frequency of typing and a lower frequency of handwriting are associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing the TOP effect, supporting the notion that the shift from traditional handwriting to digital typing may contribute to writing difficulties. Furthermore, increased reading habits are associated with a decreased likelihood of the TOP effect, indicating that frequent exposure to written text enhances orthographic retrieval.
The cognitive mechanisms behind the TOP effect involve multiple stages of processing. During the conceptual-semantic stage, the writer processes the input stimulus, identifies the target character, and retrieves its semantic information. This stage is similar to that involved in spoken language production, where the tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon occurs. The subsequent orthographic encoding stage involves retrieving the character's orthographic representation from long-term memory. This stage is more complex in written production due to the additional involvement of phonological mediation, whereby phonological information aids in orthographic retrieval. The orthographic buffer stage temporarily stores the retrieved orthographic representation, ensuring that the strokes and structure are correctly sequenced and sized before the motor execution stage. Studies have shown that deficits in the orthographic buffer can lead to increased writing errors and difficulties, particularly in individuals with developmental writing disorders or incomplete working memory development.
Theoretical explanations for the TOP effect draw from models of the TOT phenomenon. The Transmission Deficit Hypothesis (TDH) suggests that the TOP effect occurs due to insufficient activation of the connections between semantic and orthographic representations. This leads to partial retrieval, where some orthographic information is accessible, but not enough for complete character recall. The Blocking Hypothesis (BH) posits that the activation of semantically related non-target characters interferes with the retrieval of the target character, resulting in writing difficulties. This study is the first to propose these detailed stages and theoretical explanations for the TOP effect, offering a new perspective on writing difficulties.
Future research should focus on elucidating the neural basis of the TOP effect through event-related potentials (ERP) to study the time-course characteristics of TOP, identifying stages where orthographic retrieval fails, and utilizing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare brain activation patterns during successful and unsuccessful character retrieval, pinpointing the neural correlates of TOP. Additionally, researchers should investigate how various factors, such as phonological cueing and second-language experience, affect the likelihood of experiencing TOP. Future studies can provide a comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon by addressing both positive and negative aspects of TOP and exploring the complex interactions between lexical, orthographic, phonological, and individual factors. This knowledge will advance theoretical models of written language production and inform practical approaches to improving literacy and writing skills in diverse populations.

Key words

tip of the pen / character amnesia / written production / transmission deficit hypothesis / blocking hypothesis

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Lin Weihao, Yang Tingting, Zheng Guorui, Wang Ruiming. Tip-of-the-Pen Effect in Chinese Written Production[J]. Journal of Psychological Science. 2026, 49(1): 56-67 https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260107

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