Life Awe, Self-Esteem, and Bullying Victimization in Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Analysis

Lin Rongmao; Ye Yushan; Zheng Wanqing; Hu Tianxiang; Chen Xiaoyan; Xie Xuchao; Zhan Jun

doi:10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260518

PDF(1322 KB)

Journal of Psychological Science ›› 2026, Vol. 49 ›› Issue (5) : 1232-1242. DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260518

Clinical Psychology & Consulting

Life Awe, Self-Esteem, and Bullying Victimization in Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Analysis

Lin Rongmao ¹^,^** ,
Ye Yushan ¹ ,
Zheng Wanqing ¹ ,
Hu Tianxiang ¹ ,
Chen Xiaoyan ¹ ,
Xie Xuchao ² ,
Zhan Jun ¹^,^**

Author information +

History +

Abstract

School bullying remains a prevalent global concern, posing significant risks to the positive development of adolescents. The vulnerability of adolescents’ internal meaning systems is closely linked to the risk of bullying victimization. When individuals lack a sense of life value and a clear self-concept, they are less likely to develop self-protective awareness or proactive coping, increasing their likelihood of being bullied. Strengthening adolescents’ internal meaning resources plays a pivotal role in the prevention of school bullying.

Life awe and self-esteem represent two such resources. According to meaning-making theory, when individuals encounter negative events, their global meaning system, which encompasses core beliefs about life and self-worth, interacts dynamically with the situational meaning of the event. A stable meaning system provides a coherent framework for integrating stressors and adapting positively. Building on this foundation, life awe fosters a profound appreciation of the value of life, which strengthens individuals’ valuation of their own lives and enhances self-protective awareness. Self-esteem reflects a global evaluation of one’ s worth. High self-esteem reinforces positive self-beliefs, leading to greater confidence and resistance in dealing with bullying. Together, they help adolescents maintain meaning-system stability under threat, foster confidence and proactivity in self-protection, and thereby reduce the risk of victimization. However, bullying victimization, as a peer-interpersonal stressor characterized by aggression and social exclusion, may challenge the global meaning system, thereby potentially undermining life awe and self-esteem.

Life awe and self-esteem may have a mutually reinforcing relationship. Life awe can enhance self-esteem by promoting positive cognitive restructuring. In turn, self-esteem helps individuals better understand appreciate the finiteness of life, fosters more positive life experiences, and thereby enhances life awe. Accordingly, this study employed the cross-lagged panel analysis to examine the dynamic relationships among life awe, self-esteem, and bullying victimization.

A longitudinal design was adopted, with 3,911 adolescents (Mage = 14.7 years, 55.7% boys) surveyed twice over a six-month interval in April 2024 (T1) and October 2024 (T2). This study used the Life Awe Scale for Chinese Adolescents, the Self-Esteem Scale, and the Chinese version of the Delaware Bullying Victimization Scale-Student. Descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and common method bias tests were conducted using SPSS 26.0, while longitudinal measurement invariance testing and latent cross-lagged modeling were performed using Mplus 8.3. The results revealed that: (1) Cross-lagged paths indicated that both T1 self-esteem and T1 life awe significantly and negatively predicted T2 bullying victimization (β = -.11, -.12), and T1 bullying victimization negatively predicted T2 self-esteem (β = -.04); (2) A bidirectional predictive relationship existed between life awe and self-esteem, with the effect of self-esteem on life awe being stronger (β =.22 vs..10); (3) Multi-group analyses showed that the associations among life awe, self-esteem, and bullying victimization were consistent across gender, whereas the negative predictive effect of self-esteem on bullying victimization differed across grade levels. Specifically, the negative predictive effect was significant in junior secondary students only; (4) Longitudinal mediation analysis showed that, after controlling for T1 life awe and T1 bullying victimization. T2 life awe partially mediated the relationship between T1 self-esteem and T2 bullying victimization, with an indirect effect of -.04 (95% CI= [-.051, -.021]), accounting for 30.8% of the total effect.

This study suggests that life awe and self-esteem function as key internal meaning resources that protect adolescents against bullying victimization. Beyond their direct protective effects, self-esteem may also exert an indirect effect by facilitating the development of life awe. More importantly, self-esteem and life awe may jointly contribute to an integrated psychological defense mechanism through a meaning-development process that extends from self-worth to the value of life, thereby enhancing adolescents’ capacity to cope with the risk of bullying. The interaction between these two resources may contribute to the formation of a meaning-oriented self-protection system, helping adolescents shift from passive defense to more proactive prevention.

These findings highlight important practical implications for bullying prevention. Effective intervention requires not only external support, but also the cultivation of stable and enduring internal motivation. Educators and practitioners should emphasize the development of adolescents’ internal meaning systems, especially through life education and the promotion of healthy self-concept. Strengthening adolescents’ recognition of life value and fostering a stable sense of self-worth can activate intrinsic motivation for self-protection and provide more sustainable psychological and social resources to support their adaptation.

Key words

life awe / self-esteem / bullying victimization / cross-lagged panel analysis / longitudinal mediating analysis

Cite this article

EndNote

Ris (Procite)

Bibtex

Download Citations

Lin Rongmao , Ye Yushan , Zheng Wanqing , et al . Life Awe, Self-Esteem, and Bullying Victimization in Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Analysis[J]. Journal of Psychological Science. 2026, 49(5): 1232-1242 https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20260518

References

List( Publishing order | Descend order by publishing year | Descend order by cited within ) Chart analysis

[1]	何嘉杰, 钟沛枝, 毛建, 韦俊锋, 陈庭芳, 肖禾, 陈佳榕, 聂衍刚. (2026). 儿童青少年校园欺凌与自我攻击及幸福感的关系: 一项基于网络分析的研究. 心理科学, 49(1), 191-206. Cited in this article [1]

[2]	纪林芹. (2024). 学生欺凌问题的发生及其防治: 基于心理学视角的分析. 教育发展研究, 44(10), 70-76. Cited in this article [1]

[3]	廖友国, 陈建文, 张妍, 彭聪. (2022). 儿童青少年同伴侵害与内化问题的双向关系: 纵向研究的元分析. 心理学报, 54(7), 828-849. Cited in this article [1]

[4]	林荣茂, 沈逸琳, 林可心, 陈艳萍, 谢涵颖, 何晓雁, 熊夏昕. (2024). 青少年生命敬畏感问卷的编制及信效度检验. 中国临床心理学杂志, 32(3), 575-581. Cited in this article [5]

[5]	林荣茂, 余巧华, 胡添祥, 张九妹, 叶玉珊, 连榕. (2025). 敬畏感与亲社会行为关系的三水平和结构方程模型元分析. 心理学报, 57(4), 631-651. Cited in this article [1]

[6]	柳之啸, 吴任钢. (2018). 自尊对生命意义感的预测机制--心理控制源和积极情绪的中介作用. 北京大学学报(自然科学版), 54(6), 1339-1345. Cited in this article [1]

[7]	田录梅. (2006). Rosenberg(1965)自尊量表中文版的美中不足. 心理学探新, 26(2), 88-91. Cited in this article [1]

[8]	吴艳, 温忠麟. (2011). 结构方程建模中的题目打包策略. 心理科学进展, 19(12), 1859-1867. Cited in this article [1]

[9]	谢家树, 魏宇民, Bear, G. (2018). 特拉华欺凌受害量表(学生卷)中文版再修订及初步应用. 中国临床心理学杂志, 26(2), 259-263. Cited in this article [1]

[10]	杨宜音, 张志学. (1998). 性格与社会心理测量总览. 远流出版社. Cited in this article [1]

[11]	周莉, 王宏霞, 耿靖宇, 雷雳. (2024). 大学生网络受欺负与抑郁的关系: 心理资本和同伴支持的调节作用. 心理科学, 47(4), 981-989. Cited in this article [1]

[12]	Bai, Y., Ocampo, J., Jin, G. N., Chen, S., Benet-Martinez, V., Monroy, M., Anderson, C., & Keltner, D. (2021). Awe, daily stress, and elevated life satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(4), 837-860. Cited in this article [1]

[13]

Bernasco,

E. L.

, van der Graaff,

, Meeus,

W. H. J.

, & Branje,

(2022). Peer victimization, internalizing problems, and the buffering role of friendship quality: Disaggregating between- and within-person associations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(8), 1653-1666.

Cited in this article [2]

[14]	Bien, K., Wagner, J., & Brandt, N. D. (2024). Growing up to be mature and confident? The longitudinal interplay between the Big Five and self-esteem in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 127(2), 404-431. Cited in this article [1]

[15]	Chen, F. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464-504. Cited in this article [1]

[16]	Chen, S. K., & Mongrain, M. (2021). Awe and the interconnected self. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 16(6), 770-778. Cited in this article [2]

[17]	Choi, B., & Park, S. (2021). Bullying perpetration, victimization, and low self-esteem: Examining their relationship over time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(4), 739-752. Cited in this article [1]

[18]	Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(4), 558-577. Cited in this article [1]

[19]	Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65-83. Cited in this article [2]

[20]	Cooley, J. L., Fite, P. J., & Hoffman, L. (2022). Interactive effects of coping strategies and emotion dysregulation on risk for peer victimization. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 78, Article 101356. Cited in this article [1]

[21]	Ding, W., Wang, X. Y., Wang, X. R., Song, S. C., & Li, W. J. (2025). The bidirectional relation between bullying/victimization and negative automatic thoughts among children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 54(2), 493-509. Cited in this article [1]

[22]	Ding, Y., Wu, J. H., & Ji, T. T. (2022). I deserve better outcomes: Self-esteem relates to stronger reactions to unfairness. Personality and Individual Differences, 190, Article 111533. Cited in this article [3]

[23]	Gaffney, H., Ttofi, M. M., & Farrington, D. P. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37-56. Cited in this article [1]

[24]	Geng, J. Y., Wang, Y. H., Wang, P. C., Zeng, P., & Lei, L. (2022). Gender differences between cyberbullying victimization and meaning in life: Roles of fatalism and self-concept clarity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(19-20), NP17157-NP17181. Cited in this article [1]

[25]	Geoffroy, M. C., Arseneault, L., Girard, A., Ouellet-Morin, I., & Power, C. (2023). Association of childhood bullying victimisation with suicide deaths: Findings from a 50-year nationwide cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 53(9), 4152-4159. Cited in this article [2]

[26]	Harris, M. A., & Orth, U. (2020). The link between self-esteem and social relationships: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 119(6), 1459-1477. Cited in this article [3]

[27]	Healy, K. L., Scott, J. G., & Thomas, H. J. (2024). The protective role of supportive relationships in mitigating bullying victimization and psychological distress in adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 33(10), 3211-3228. Cited in this article [1]

[28]	Henry, K. L., Lovegrove, P. J., Steger, M. F., Chen, P. Y., Cigularov, K. P., & Tomazic, R. G. (2014). The potential role of meaning in life in the relationship between bullying victimization and suicidal ideation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(2), 221-232. Cited in this article [1]

[29]	Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55. Cited in this article [1]

[30]	Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying: An introduction. American Psychologist, 70(4), 293-299. Cited in this article [1]

[31]	Jiang, T. L., Hicks, J. A., Yuan, W. Y., Yin, Y. G., Needy, L., & Vess, M. (2024). The unique nature and psychosocial implications of awe. Nature Reviews Psychology, 3(7), 475-488. Cited in this article [5]

[32]	Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 17(2), 297-314. Cited in this article [1]

[33]	Keltner, D., Sauter, D., Tracy, J. L., Wetchler, E., & Cowen, A. S. (2022). How emotions, relationships, and culture constitute each other: Advances in social functionalist theory. Cognition and Emotion, 36(3), 388-401. Cited in this article [1]

[34]

Li,

W. Y.

, Guo,

Y. F.

, Lai,

W. J.

, Wang,

W. X.

, Li,

X. W.

, Zhu,

L. W.

, Shi,

, Guo,

, & Lu,

C. Y.

(2023). Reciprocal relationships between self-esteem, coping styles and anxiety symptoms among adolescents: Between-person and within-person effects. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 17(1), Article 21.

Cited in this article [2]

[35]

Lin,

R. M.

, Hong,

Y. J.

, Xiao,

H. W.

, Chen,

Y. P.

, & Lian,

(2021). Openness to experience and dispositional awe: The moderating role of subjective socioeconomic status and mediating role of Zhong-Yong thinking style in Chinese undergraduates. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 62(4), 617-624.

Cited in this article [1]

[36]	Marquez, J., Francis-Hew, L., & Humphrey, N. (2023). Protective factors for resilience in adolescence: Analysis of a longitudinal dataset using the residuals approach. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 17(1), Article 140. Cited in this article [1]

[37]	Marshall, S. L., Parker, P. D., Ciarrochi, J., & Heaven, P. C. L. (2014). Is self-esteem a cause or consequence of social support? A 4-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 85(3), 1275-1291. Cited in this article [1]

[38]	Matuschka, L. K., Scott, J. G., Campbell, M. A., Lawrence, D., Zubrick, S. R., Bartlett, J., & Thomas, H. J. (2022). Correlates of help-seeking behaviour in adolescents who experience bullying victimisation. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 4(2), 99-114. Cited in this article [1]

[39]	McAdams, D. P., & Olson, B. D. (2010). Personality development: Continuity and change over the life course. Annual Review of Psychology, 61(1), 517-542. Cited in this article [1]

[40]	Miao, M., Zheng, L., & Gan, Y. Q. (2017). Meaning in life promotes proactive coping via positive affect: A daily diary study. Journal of Happiness Studies, 18(6), 1683-1696. Cited in this article [2]

[41]	North, R. J., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2009). Self-verification 360°: Illuminating the light and dark sides. Self and Identity, 8(2-3), 131-146. Cited in this article [2]

[42]	Olweus, D. (2013). School bullying: Development and some important challenges. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9(1), 751-780. Cited in this article [1]

[43]	Orth, U., Erol, R. Y., & Luciano, E. C. (2018). Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 144(10), 1045-1080. Cited in this article [1]

[44]	Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). The development of self-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 381-387. Cited in this article [3]

[45]	Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2022). Is high self-esteem beneficial? Revisiting a classic question. American Psychologist, 77(1), 5-17. Cited in this article [1]

[46]	Palermiti, A. L., Bartolo, M. G., Musso, P., Servidio, R., & Costabile, A. (2022). Self-esteem and adolescent bullying/cyberbullying and victimization/cybervictimization behaviours: A person-oriented approach. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 18(3), 249-261. Cited in this article [1]

[47]	Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: An integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 257-301. Cited in this article [4]

[48]	Richesin, M. T., & Baldwin, D. R. (2023). How awe shaped us: An evolutionary perspective. Emotion Review, 15(1), 17-27. Cited in this article [1]

[49]	Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press. Cited in this article [2]

[50]	Saint-Georges, Z., & Vaillancourt, T. (2020). The temporal sequence of depressive symptoms, peer victimization, and self-esteem across adolescence: Evidence for an integrated self-perception driven model. Development and Psychopathology, 32(3), 975-984. Cited in this article [1]

[51]	Schuurman, N. K., Ferrer, E., de Boer-Sonnenschein, M., & Hamaker, E. L. (2016). How to compare cross-lagged associations in a multilevel autoregressive model. Psychological Methods, 21(2), 206-221. Cited in this article [1]

[52]

Shi,

X. L.

, Zhang,

W. J.

, Chen,

X. Y.

, & Zhu,

(2025). Longitudinal relations among self-compassion, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms in college students: Disentangling the within-person process from stable between-person differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 54(1), 255-270.

Cited in this article [1]

[53]	Stamkou, E., Brummelman, E., Dunham, R., Nikolic, M., & Keltner, D. (2023). Awe sparks prosociality in children. Psychological Science, 34(4), 455-467. Cited in this article [1]

[54]	Stellar, J. E., Gordon, A., Anderson, C. L., Piff, P. K., McNeil, G. D., & Keltner, D. (2018). Awe and humility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(2), 258-269. Cited in this article [2]

[55]

Stellar,

J. E.

, Gordon,

A. M.

, Piff,

P. K.

, Cordaro,

, Anderson,

C. L.

, Bai,

, Maruskin,

L. A.

, & Keltner,

(2017). Self-transcendent emotions and their social functions: Compassion, gratitude, and awe bind us to others through prosociality. Emotion Review, 9(3), 200-207.

Cited in this article [4]

[56]

Sullivan,

, Kosloff,

, & Greenberg,

(2013). A terror management perspective on the creation and defense of meaning. In J. A. Hicks & C. Routledge (Eds.), The experience of meaning in life: Classical perspectives, emerging themes, and controversies (pp. 17-30). Springer.

Cited in this article [2]

[57]	Swiatczak, M. D. (2021). Towards a neo-configurational theory of intrinsic motivation. Motivation and Emotion, 45(6), 769-789. Cited in this article [1]

[58]	Syvertsen, A. K., Scales, P. C., & Toomey, R. B. (2021). Developmental Assets framework revisited: Confirmatory analysis and invariance testing to create a new generation of assets measures for applied research. Applied Developmental Science, 25(4), 291-306. Cited in this article [1]

[59]	Telzer, E. H., Miernicki, M. E., & Rudolph, K. D. (2018). Chronic peer victimization heightens neural sensitivity to risk taking. Development and Psychopathology, 30(1), 13-26. Cited in this article [1]

[60]	Ten Bokkel, I. M., Roorda, D. L., Maes, M., Verschueren, K., & Colpin, H. (2023). The role of affective teacher-student relationships in bullying and peer victimization: A multilevel meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 52(2), 110-129. Cited in this article [1]

[61]	UNESCO. (2019). Behind the numbers: Ending school violence and bullying. UNESCO. Cited in this article [1]

[62]	van Geel, M., Goemans, A., Zwaanswijk, W., Gini, G., & Vedder, P. (2018). Does peer victimization predict low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem predict peer victimization? Meta-analyses on longitudinal studies. Developmental Review, 49, 31-40. Cited in this article [1]

[63]

Wang,

X. Q.

, Huebner,

E. S.

, & Tian,

L. L.

(2023). Longitudinal relations among perceived parental warmth, self-esteem and social behaviours from middle childhood to early adolescence in China: Disentangling between- and within-person associations. British Journal of Psychology, 114(4), 969-990.

Cited in this article [1]

[64]	Ward, S., Womick, J., Titova, L., & King, L. (2023). Meaning in life and coping with everyday stressors. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 49(3), 460-476. Cited in this article [1]

[65]	Wu, X. Y., Zhen, R., Shen, L. Y., Tan, R. Y., & Zhou, X. (2023). Patterns of elementary school students’ bullying victimization: Roles of family and individual factors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 38(3-4), 2410-2431. Cited in this article [1]

[66]	Yuan, W. Y., Chang, J. Y., Jiang, F., & Jiang, T. L. (2025). Be kinder to yourself: Awe promotes self-compassion via self-transcendence. Emotion, 25(5), 1244-1255. Cited in this article [2]

[67]	Yuan, W. Y., Du, Y. H., & Jiang, T. L. (2024). How and when awe improves meaning in life: The role of authentic-self pursuit and trait authenticity. Emotion, 24(2), 412-430. Cited in this article [4]

[68]	Zych, I., Farrington, D. P., Llorent, V. J., Ribeaud, D., & Eisner, M. P. (2021). Childhood risk and protective factors as predictors of adolescent bullying roles. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 3(2), 138-146. Cited in this article [1]