Abstract: Getting benefit from the strength of metal structure, the robustness of mechanical system and the reliability of automatic control system of advanced commercial aircraft, the modern aviation industry maintains a high safety record. However, “black swans” such as “bird strikes”, “stall”, “engine failure”, “automation system failure” are still exist. These unexpected events may induce Startle or Surprise for pilots. Startle and Surprise played a key role in a significant number of Loss-of-Control In-flight events (LOC-I) as well as in other types of accidents. Startle and Surprise may lead the crew to improper intuitive behavior or hasty decision-making. Skillfully trained operating procedures and skills are likely to be forgotten, instead of processing information that first enters the pilot’s brain. To make a long story short, improper Startle and Surprise reactions may endanger aviation safety. This has attracted the attention of the official agencies, such as European Aviation Safety Agency, Federal Aviation Administration, and Civil Aviation Administration of China. The startle reflex is the first response to a sudden, intense stimulus. It triggers an involuntary physiological reflex, such as blinking of the eyes, an increased heart rate and an increased tension of the muscles, startle is regulated by thalamus, amygdala and neocortex. However, Surprise results from a disparity between a person’s expectations and what is actually perceived, Surprise is modified by prefrontal lobe and basal ganglia. In addition, the physiological response of Startle is more obvious than Surprise, by contrast, the duration of Surprise is longer than Startle. In terms of the prevalence of aviation studies, the incidence of Surprise is much higher than that of Startle, and the severity of startle is generally greater than that of Surprise. In order to understand the behavior of pilots in Startle or Surprise, and improve their metacognitive skills, Landman et al (2017a) put forward a model (Landman Model). The model included 7 elements: (1) The perceptual cycle, (2) Startle, (3) Frames, (4) Surprise, (5) Slow appraisal: Sensemaking, (6) Reframing, (7) Stress. Experiment results have shown that this model has a positive value for cognitive training of pilots. However, Landman Model ignores the individual differences of pilots’ psychological ability. Thus, we add (8) Emotional Stability, (9) Cognitive Flexibility, and (10) Working Memory into this model, namely, the Extended Landman Model. There is no doubt that the three new elements will provide guidance for the psychological selection of pilots. Based on Extended Landman Model, we put forward four strategies of Startle and Surprise management. (1) Improve the psychological selection of pilots. In the selection stage, pilots with good emotional stability, cognitive flexibility and working memory ability should be selected. Therefore, it is necessary to add or optimize these three psychological tests in the pilot selection stage. (2) Strengthen the practice of “counterfactual inference.” Encouraging pilots to discuss novel events with their colleagues and explaining how and why they will respond can reduce the negative impact of Startle and Surprise. There are many unexpected events in flight, however, it is impossible to train them all one by one. In the hypothetical scenario, discussion of action plans and psychological exercises can help pilots build a production rule base to improve their mission performance in the serious events. (3) Optimize simulator training. Varied (unexpected) simulation training can make pilots form a cognitive framework to deal with special circumstances, improve cognitive flexibility, enhance self-efficacy, and reduce the occurrence of Startle and Surprise reactions. (4) “Human-centered” automation design. If the automation system feeds back the operation and purpose of each step to the pilot with a voice interpreter, or displays the contents of the “black box” with a visual flow chart (ecological interfaces), it may increase the understanding of the pilot and reduce the occurrence of automation surprises. In summary, the Extended Landman Model is of great significance to the selection and training of pilots.

Key words: Startle, Surprise, Flight Safety, Extended Landman Model

摘要： 在飞行活动中，飞行员的惊吓和惊奇反应是导致飞行失控的重要因素。惊吓和惊奇反应可能使飞行员熟练训练过的操作程序和技能被遗忘，取而代之的是不适当的直觉性的行为或草率的决策。现有的使用飞行模拟器的研究表明，Landman模型对减轻飞行员惊吓和惊奇的训练有重要价值。在Landman模型的基础上，我们加入了飞行员心理能力的个体间差别（即拓展的Landman模型），因此拓展的Landman模型对于飞行员的选拔和训练将具有重要意义。

关键词: 惊吓 惊奇 飞行安全 拓展的Landman模型