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20 September 2023, Volume 46 Issue 5 Previous Issue    Next Issue
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General Psychology，Experimental Psychology & Ergonomics
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General Psychology，Experimental Psychology & Ergonomics

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Cognitive Bias toward Body-Related Information of Different Emotional Valence among Females with Fat Negative Physical Self: An Event-Related Potential Study Yao Jiayi, Leng Xuechen, Feng Chengzhi, Feng Wenfeng 2023, 46(5): 1026-1035.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230501 Abstract ( )   PDF (1401KB) ( )   Considering the prevalence and serious consequences of weight dissatisfaction, investigation of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of weight dissatisfaction seems to have important social implications. According to Vitousek and Hollon's (1990) cognitive theory of eating disorders, stereotyped, emotional, and exaggerated evaluations of weight-related information lead to maladaptive schemas related to body shape, weight, and the self. People with maladaptive schemas show an enhancement in attention and memory for schema-consistent information (e.g., fat stimuli) and selectively resist schema-inconsistent information (e.g., thin stimuli). At present, although previous studies have confirmed that people with fat negative body self show cognitive bias toward body-related information, there is still a lack of empirical research on the processing characteristics and neural mechanism toward body-related information of different emotional valence. In this experiment, participants were assigned to an experimental group with high weight dissatisfaction (HWD) and a control group with low weight dissatisfaction (LWD) according to the scores on the Negative Physical Self Scale-Fatness. The final sample included 40 female college students. We employed a modified 1-back task and recorded ERPs time-locked to visually present body-related words, including negative fat words, positive fat words, negative thin words, and positive thin words. The participants were requested to judge whether the current word was the same as the last one. Compared with the passive viewing and dot-probe paradigm, the 1-back task required participants to pay attention to each word, and after reducing the continuous repetition probability of the word, more analyzable trials could be reserved, and the fatigue effect of the participants could be alleviated to some extent. The behavioral results showed that the average accuracy for each group in the current study was over 95%, indicating that participants could complete the task efficiently. There was no significant difference in response time between the HWD and LWD groups. The ERP results showed that body-related words did not elicit larger anterior N1 and N170 amplitudes in the HWD group than in the LWD group, showing that there was no negative cognitive bias toward fatness-related information in the early ERP components related to attentional processing and cognitive resource investment among females with HWD. Besides, in both the HWD group and LWD group, body-related words induced larger P2 and LPP amplitudes and smaller N300 amplitudes than did non-body-related neutral words, additionally, positive thin words and negative thin words induced larger LPP amplitudes than did positive fat words and negative fat words. Since there were significant differences in LPP amplitude induced by different body-related words, the average LPP amplitudes were analyzed by four-factor ANOVA to further distinguish the processing differences between body shape dimensions (fat and thin) and emotional valence (positive and negative). The results showed that cognitive bias toward body-related words was dominated by body dimensions rather than emotional valence in the late processing stage, and the LPP amplitude induced by thinness-related words was significantly higher than that induced by fatness-related words. In conclusion, the present study partially validates the cognitive-behavioral theory. Specifically, in the early processing stage, females could distinguish between body-related and non-body-related information, both fatness-related and thinness-related information were emotionally salient, and under the influence of task demand, the processing of body-related information was suppressed subsequently. In the late processing stage, females invested more cognitive resources toward thinness-related information and maintained more attention to thinness-related information. And the most important finding was that the females' cognitive bias toward body-related information in late processing was dominated by body shape rather than emotional valence. These findings reveal the mechanism of cognitive bias toward body-related information among females with fat negative body self and contribute to the model of the cognitive-behavioral theory of body image disturbance, which may help enhance prevention and interventions for reducing weight dissatisfaction. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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An Empirical Study on The Motivation of Helping Behavior in Rodents Han Shu, Chen Yaqin, Zheng Benhuiyuan, Wang Yaxin, Yin Bin 2023, 46(5): 1036-1045.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230502 Abstract ( )   PDF (1126KB) ( )   Helping behavior is universal across species. In recent years, it has become a new trend for scholars to use rodent models to explore the motivation of helping behavior. Empathy, relieving personal distress, and desire for social contacts are plausible motivations for rodents to help, but debates exist about whether helping behavior is inspired by one of the motives or the combination of them. In this study, to explore the motivation of helping behavior in rodents, the two-chamber experimental apparatus designed by Carvalheiro et al. (2019) was improved by adding an intermediate chamber to manipulate the possibility of the free rat's social contact with the entrapped rats after implementing the helping behavior as well as the possibility of the free rat's escaping from the helping context to relieve its personal distress in the process of helping decision-making. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (N=108) were used as subjects in three experiments. The latency to open the door for helping the entrapped rat escape was recorded as the main outcome variable. Experiment 1 confirmed the existence of helping behavior and the impact of social contact on helping behavior under the condition of being unable to escape from the helping context, using a 2 (possibility of social contact: yes/no) by 4 (restrainer condition: empty restrainer, familiar rat, unfamiliar rat, toy rat) mixed experimental design. The results showed that when social contact was allowed, the free rat maintained a consistently short latency to help, but when social contact was not allowed, the free rat's latency to help became longer and longer as sessions went on until the free rat no longer helped at all within the 15min session limit. Experiment 2 explored the impact of social contact on helping behavior under the condition of being able to escape from the helping context, using the same experimental design as Study 1 but keeping the door between the middle chamber and the dark chamber open. The results showed that the existence of the dark chamber was beneficial for the non-social contact group to help continuously, but extended the latency to help in the social contact group, namely, relieving personal distress contributes to the emergence of helping behavior, but the emergence of helping behavior ultimately depends on whether social contact could be made. Experiment 3 explored the influence of previous social contact experience and current social contact possibility on helping behavior under the condition of the free rats' having been trapped before, using a 2(possibility of social contact: yes/no) by 2 (previous social contact experience: yes/no) by 4 (restrainer conditions: empty restrainer, familiar rat, unfamiliar rat, toy rat) mixed experimental design. The results showed that previous experiences of being trapped did not affect helping behavior, but previous experiences of social contact were conducive to maintaining continuous helping behavior in the non-social contact group. In summary, the following conclusions were obtained through this study: (1) desires for social contact and the pursuit of interesting environment are important motivations for rodents' helping behavior, regardless of the possibility to escape from the helping context. (2) Relieving personal distress can help sustain helping behavior, but the emergence of helping behavior ultimately depends on whether social contact can be carried out after helping. (3) Previous experiences of social contact rather than the experiences of having been trapped contribute to the occurrence of helping behavior. (4) Empathy may not be the main reason to maintain helping behavior but rather can be used to describe the process of helping behavior. This study extends the comparative research on the motivation of helping behavior and provides some hints for the psychological development and educational practices in humans. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Role of Moral Information in Impression Updating Chen Li, Ou Yao, Li Weina, Cao Shijing 2023, 46(5): 1046-1056.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230503 Abstract ( )   PDF (1900KB) ( )   Impression formation refers to receive information from an individual and forming an opinion on one's characteristics and personality. Previous studies on concrete factors that promote or hinder the formation of impressions have focused on the two-dimensional model of stereotype (i.e., warmth and ability). The warmth dimension of the two-dimensional stereotype model has been recently derived into moral and social dimensions. However, compared with abundant studies on how moral influences impression formation, the literature on how moral influences impression updating is extremely limited, and these limited researches have not systematically compared the roles of moral, social and ability dimensions in promoting impression updating, as well as the different influences of different information intensities on impression updating. Therefore, this study highlights the important role of moral information in impression updating by comparing moral information with social information and moral information with ability information in the Chinese context, and further divides the high and low strength of moral information to explain the information strength conditions that trigger impression updating. Two studies were designed to test the above hypotheses. Study 1 was divided into two parts. First of all, Experiment 1 adopted a 2 (the first behavioral dimension: morality, sociality)×2(information valence: positive, negative)×2(the second behavioral dimension: morality, sociality) within subject design, aiming at comparing the influence of moral information and social information on impression updating process. The results showed that when forming the first impression, positive moral information produces more positive impressions than positive social information, and vice versa. After calculating the impression update score, it is found that moral information can produce greater impression update than social information under both positive and negative valence conditions. Experiment 2 also adopted a 2(first behavioral dimension: morality, ability)×2(information valence: positive, negative)×2(second behavioral dimension: morality, ability) within subject design, aiming at comparing the influence of moral information and ability information on impression updating process. When forming the first impression, positive moral information produces more positive impressions than positive ability information, and vice versa. After calculating the impression update score, it is found that moral information can produce greater impression update than ability information under both positive and negative titer. Therefore, we conclude that, compared with social information and ability information, moral information plays a greater role in the process of impression updating. On the basis of Study 1, Study 2 further divided the strength of moral information, and also adopted an within subject design of 2(the first behavioral dimension: high-strength morality, low-strength morality)×2(the information valence: positive, negative)×2(the second behavioral dimension: high-strength morality, low-strength morality), aiming at exploring whether the low-strength moral information can update the first impression by manipulating the different intensities of moral information. The procedure of Study 2 is basically the same as that of Study 1. The only difference is that moral information is presented to the subjects in Study 2, and the high and low moral strength is divided. The results of Study 2 showed that low-strength moral information can cause impression renewal, even when the first behavioral dimension is high-strength moral information. Meanwhile, whether under positive or negative conditions, high-strength moral information can always produce greater impression update than low-strength moral information. To sum up, this study draws the following conclusions. First, the impression of others will be updated according to new information inconsistent with previous information. Second, under the stereotype content model, the moral dimension can play a leading role in the process of impression updating more than other dimensions (social and ability). Finally, the higher the intensity of moral information, the greater the impression update. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Encoding and Decoding Credibility in Human Vocal Cues Hu Yanbing, Jiang Xiaoming 2023, 46(5): 1057-1066.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230504 Abstract ( )   PDF (981KB) ( )   Recognizing vocal cues of credibility plays a significant role in social interactions. Vocal credibility refers to the degree to which listeners judge the truthfulness of a message from the speaker's voice, and affects the listener's social impressions and subsequent behaviours towards the speaker. Supported by behavioral and neurophysiological evidence, the cognitive processing model of vocal expression proposes that listeners can decode speakers' credibility from various vocal information such as speech prosody, lexical-semantic information, and accents. In terms of speech prosody, credible voices are associated with higher Fundamental Frequency (F0) and amplitudes, whereas the untrustworthy ones are characterized by slower speech rates and more frequent pauses. Evidence from event-related potentials (ERPs) has shown that listeners can differentiate between credible and untrustworthy prosody apart as early as 200ms and continue to compute these vocal cues in a dynamic fashion. Furthermore, fMRI studies have revealed that the increased trustworthiness of vocal expressions is associated with increased activity in the left Superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and the left Inferior Frontal Gyrus (IFG), whereas the increased untrustworthiness engendered an activation in the right Superior Temporal Gyrus (STG). Moreover, functional connectivity studies have shown that the strengthened connections between the left Postcentral Gyrus and the Supplementary Motor Area (SMA) are associated with the listeners' decoding of vocal cues of speaker untrustworthiness. The vocal cues and semantic information interact to form the speaker's credibility impression. The ERP evidence showed that vocal expressions with the vocal cue incongruent with the semantic content elicited a larger Late Positive Potential (LPP). Source localization revealed that Middle Frontal Gyrus (MFG) and STG contributed to this effect. Prosody-semantic congruency modulates the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the decoding of speaker credibility. Accent cues that indicate in- and out-group voices are relevant for decoding credibility. Listeners perceived in- (vs. out-) group voices as more credible. ERP results showed that for the out-group accent, the doubtful (vs. confident) voice elicited a smaller P200 response. However, for the in-group accent, the doubtful (vs. confident) voice elicited larger early responses. Moreover, basal ganglia, left cuneus and right fusiform gyrus were activated when listeners judged out-group vs. in-group voices for speaker's credibility. More importantly, the superior parietal and middle temporal brain regions were activated when listeners perceived in-group (vs. out-group) credibility. These results suggest that there could be two pathways for decoding vocal credibility. Listeners show greater sensitivity towards in-group voice at the perceptual level, and they tend to follow a ‘direct path' for making social inferences based on the human voice. For the out-group speaker, the social category information activated by accent information delays listeners' social reasoning about the out-group features. Listeners follow a longer or more laborious ‘indirect path' to compute the credibility of the out-group speaker with an in-depth analysis of the vocal expression. The processing of vocal credibility involves not only the analysis of lower-level acoustic features but also the higher-level social categorization. In future research, one should explore further three topics related to the encoding and decoding mechanisms of speakers' credibility: (1) The developmental mechanisms underlying the decoding of credibility from human voice; (2) The role of multimodal nonverbal cues in encoding and decoding speaker credibility in real-life social interactions; and (3) The neurocognitive deficits of decoding vocal credibility in clinical populations. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Emotion and Individual Spatial Cognition Wang Xuan, You Xuqun 2023, 46(5): 1067-1073.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230505 Abstract ( )   PDF (841KB) ( )   Spatial cognition is a process of processing information from the distance, size, and orientation of the space, and is the basis for people to survive and adapt to the world. As an advanced psychological process, spatial cognition itself is the key research object of Cognitive Psychology. Therefore, the role of emotional factors in the process of spatial cognition has been gradually explored from two perspectives. One is the impact of individual emotional state on spatial cognition and the other is the impact of emotionally laden landmarks on individual spatial cognition. Here, this review will sort out the research ideas from two aspects above. First, we reviewed research methods and results of individual affective states as emotional factors. The main method is to use classical experimental paradigms such as the Morris Water Maze paradigm. Researchers manipulate participants' affective states, crossing valence (happy, sad) and arousal (high, low) by affect-laden images, music, video, and other ways. Then, the participants are required to complete some virtual spatial tasks such as the mental walking task, the landmark position task, the metric judgement task, and the route drawing task. During tasks, the data of physiological indicators such as brain activities and heart rate, as well as behavioral indicators such as accuracy and reaction time will be collected and analyzed. These results show that individual affective state has a certain impact on spatial working memory, the selection and utilization of spatial cues, geographical slant and height perception, but the specific impact mechanism is still unclear. Second, we reviewed research methods and results of emotionally laden landmarks as emotional factors. Landmarks play an anchor role in our psychological representation of the physical environment and provide guiding information for spatial cognitive activities, especially way finding. The main method of most studies is to serve affect-laden images as emotionally laden landmarks, and then ask the participants to complete some virtual space tasks. For example, in an immersive virtual environment, participants are allowed to experience the first-person view to reach a target destination. These results show that emotionally laden landmarks make a difference to memory of landmarks, spatial distance estimates, and reproduction of the path. However, researchers have not yet reached an agreement on whether positive or negative emotional landmarks can improve people's spatial cognition. In other words, little is known about the mechanism of emotionally laden landmarks influencing individual spatial cognition. Finally, based on the discussion above, we proposed the following three future directions: (1) Research in laboratory should be more tended to simulate realistic environments (e.g., using realistic cues such as the sun and building signs). (2) When manipulating participants' emotions, not only the general valence but also the specific emotions could be considered, such as fear, anger, sadness, and so forth for emotions with negative valence, and relaxation, love, happiness, and so forth for emotions with positive valence. (3) Researchers should pay more attention to clinical populations with topographical disorientation disorders as well as to patients suffering from mood disorders. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of World Knowledge and Word Association During Chinese Sentence Processing among Children Aged 10~12: An Eye-Movement Study Wu Yan, Chen Qiyang, Hu Shiqian 2023, 46(5): 1074-1080.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230506 Abstract ( )   PDF (1256KB) ( )   The successful comprehension of sentences is a seemingly simple but complex process in which various types of information are needed. To quickly and proficiently get the information of each sentence, it is necessary to extract the information of each word in the sentence and use the different types of concepts stored in our memory. For skilled readers, both information can be extracted from the reader's memory and immediately impact the current sentence processing. However, how and when these different types of semantic information affect children's reading comprehension is still an open question. Therefore, the present study examined the effects of world knowledge, word association, and its time course in Chinese sentence reading comprehension among children aged 10~12, using eye-tracking measures. In the experiment, both adults (the control group) and children were asked to read the sentence with a target word congruent or incongruent with ones' world knowledge (e.g., Mother stuck the stamp on the envelope/skirt.). Additionally, congruent and incongruent sentences were further divided into two levels, according to whether there was a semantic association between the target word (e.g., envelope/skirt) and the word (e.g., stamp) in preceding context. Both target words and the words associated with it were in the same sentence. Thus, there were four conditions by crossing congruency and word association, including associated-congruent, associated-incongruent, unassociated-congruent, and unassociated-incongruent conditions. In the experiment, participants were asked to read the sentences for comprehension, and there were some comprehension questions following some of materials, which could monitor whether children were reading for comprehension or browsing mindlessly. The second critical word in each experimental sentence was defined as the interest area. Linear Mixed Model (LMM) of R language was used to analyze each eye movement indicator. Results firstly revealed that all reading times (including first fixation duration, gaze, second reading time, and total reading time) increased significantly when the sentence meaning violated ones' world knowledge both in the adults and children. Moreover, children would spend more time processing the target words as compared with adults. However, there was no main effect of word association, but the word association significantly interacted with participants' age in the gaze duration. Further analysis revealed that word association showed the main effect on gaze duration among the adult participants, but it interacted with world knowledge among children. When the sentence was incongruent, the gaze duration of associated target words was longer, whereas there were no word association effects when the sentence was congruent. First, findings suggest that children are less efficient in reading for comprehension and therefore need more times to finish current processing. Besides, world knowledge could affect sentence processing among children and adults with the same patterns and time courses. However, as refer to the word association effects, there are differences between children and adults. In adults, word association could play an earlier role in sentence processing. In children, word association could play a role only when the sentence semantics couldn't be integrated. In sum, both sentence-level congruency and lexical-level word association could influence children's on-line reading comprehension, but with different time courses. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Developmental & Educational Psychology

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Fear of Missing Out or Social Avoidance? The Relationship Between Peer Exclusion and Problematic Social Media Use Among Adolescents Dou Kai, Li Yanyu, Wang Linxin, Nie Yangang 2023, 46(5): 1081-1089.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230507 Abstract ( )   PDF (1757KB) ( )   With the rapid development of Internet and the widespread utilization of smartphones, the popularity of social media platforms among adolescents has risen and concerns on adolescents' social media use are rising among schools and families. Problematic social media use (PSMU) refers to an unhealthy and excessive way of social media use, characterized by additive-like and uncontrollable social media use behavior. PSMU has been related to negative life consequences such as low academic achievements, poor sleep quality, and mental health issues. Therefore, understanding the risk factors of PSMU and the underlying mechanism has garnered significant attention from scientists around the world. Previous studies on PSMU mainly focused on the predicting role of individual factors. It is still unknown whether and how peer environment influences PSMU among adolescents. Peer exclusion, a vital negative peer environment indicator, may act as a risk factor in increasing adolescents' PSMU. Adolescents who are socially excluded by their peers may seek compensation from internet because of different social motivations. Therefore, the present study investigated the predicting role of peer exclusion on PSMU and its underlying process by distinguishing between social approaching motivation (i.e., fear of missing out) and social avoiding motivation (i.e., social avoidance). Moreover, little is known about the regional differences of these associations. To address these hypotheses, we constructed an “approaching-avoiding” parallel-path model and recruited participants from both Guangzhou and Macao. A total of 965 adolescents (Mage = 12.78 years old, SD = 2.45 years old; 52% are male) from Guangzhou (n = 749) and Macao (n = 216) participated in this study. Participants anonymously completed the Peer Exclusion Scale, the Fear of Missing Out Scale, the Social and Avoidance Scale, and the Problematic Social Media Use Scale. Meanwhile, demographic information, including gender, age, grade, and parental educational level, was also collected. The results showed that: (1) Adolescents who reported higher levels of peer exclusion displayed higher levels of PSMU; (2) The indirect effect of fear of missing out as a mediator between peer exclusion and PSMU was positive and significant and was consistent across both Guangzhou and Macao; (3) The indirect effect of social avoidance as a mediator between peer exclusion and PSMU was only significant among adolescents in Guangzhou. Furthermore, among the total indirect effects of mediators, the indirect effect of fear of missing out was found to be stronger than that of social avoidance. In conclusion, the current study sheds light on the impact of peer exclusion, a core detrimental environmental factor, on PSMU among adolescents. Results indicated that peer exclusion may increase adolescents' PSMU through fear of missing out and social avoidance, with differences noted between adolescents in Guangzhou and Macao. These findings contribute to the existing literature on the compensatory Internet use theory and the Multi-motive Model, and further our understandings of the psychological mechanism between peer exclusion and PSMU. Moreover, this research has practical significance for decreasing adolescents' PSMU and highlights the importance of peer environment. Findings suggest that intervening on peer exclusion might be promising to reduce adolescents' PSMU and additional attention should be paid to the regional difference between Guangzhou and Macao. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Sleep Quality on Academic Performance of Children Aged 10 to 12 Through the Mediating Role of Updating Ability Fang Haoyu, Zhu Xiaoliang, Zhao Xin 2023, 46(5): 1090-1097.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230508 Abstract ( )   PDF (1073KB) ( )   As an important physiological activity of individuals, sleep has an important influence on physical and mental health. Poor sleep quality is associated with chronic diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, and psychosocial stress. It has been found that poor sleep quality is associated with lower academic performance of school-age children, but the underlying mechanisms need to be further explored. Therefore, this study attempted to explore the internal mechanism in the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance of school-age children. Based on existing studies, children with poor sleep quality perform worse in school than children with good sleep quality, and continuous poor sleep quality is associated with continued academic difficulties for children. Therefore, sleep quality is an important factor in explaining children's poor academic performance. At the same time, some studies have found that poor sleep quality will hinder the neural development of the hippocampus and the consolidation of long-term memory information, thus resulting in the poor updating ability of individuals, the bad memory of learning materials, and academic difficulties. In this study, we hypothesized that poor sleep quality in children would first lead to poor updating ability, which then may affect cognitive activities based on the updating function, such as academic activities. Therefore, we hypothesized that updating function played a mediating role in the relation between sleep quality and academic performance. A total of 203 children (93 males and 110 females) with an average age of 10.49 years old completed all the experimental tasks. The experimental tasks involved questionnaires on children's sleep habits, digital refresh task (1750ms, 750ms), and the scores of children. Then SPSS 23.0 was used to describe and analyze the data, and Mplus 8.3 was used for path analysis of the structural equation model. The results showed that: (1) Sleep quality was negatively correlated with academic performance and updating function; while there was a significant positive correlation between updating function and academic performance. (2) Sleep quality did not directly affect academic performance. The sleep quality influenced academic performance through the updating ability. This study constructed the mediation model to explore the relationship between the sleep quality and academic performance and then verified the mediation function of the updating ability. But there are still some shortcomings. First of all, the relation between sleep quality and academic performance has yet not been tested, and future research can further explore how the subjective and objective sleep quality are associated with the standardized academic tests and academic grades rated by teachers. Secondly, this study has poor control over confounding variables. To investigate the relation between sleep quality and academic performance, future studies should control the key factors that affect children's academic performance, such as children's age, their parents' education level and learning motivation. Thirdly, the cross-sectional data of this study cannot establish a causal relationship between sleep quality and academic achievement, and more follow-up and experimental studies are needed to evaluate whether and in what way if possible the two have causal relationship. Finally, some researchers found that children's self-reported internalized and externalized mental health problems played a mediating role in the relationship between sleep quality and academic performance. Future researchers could further explore other factors through which sleep quality affects academic performance. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Irrelevant Background Sound on The Process of Solving Difficult and Simple Mathematical Word Problems for Primary School Students Liu Nina, Wu Shuqin, Yan Guoli 2023, 46(5): 1098-1105.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230509 Abstract ( )   PDF (1344KB) ( )   Mathematical word problems consist of problem representation and the problem solving. It combines with a variety of cognitive processing, such as reading, memory, deduction, integration, problem-solving and so on. Primary school students are easily disturbed by the surrounding things, in which one of main factors is the background sound from the external environment. A large body of research has consistently shown that irrelevant background sounds have seriously interference influence on short-term memory and reading processing (Murphy et al., 2018; Sörqvist, 2010; Yan et al., 2018), namely irrelevant speech effect (ISE). Some of them have indicated that the semantic information in ISE disrupts cognitive processing, while appropriate white noise may facilitate people's relative processing to some extent. However, whether background sounds may influence mathematical word problems for primary school students is still unclear. Thus, the present study manipulated both the types of background sounds (meaningful speech, meaningless speech, white noise and silence condition) and the difficulty level of word problems (difficult vs. simple). Specifically, the material of meaningful speech is an article extracted from bilingual reading material, which is read by a female college student in Chinese. Meaningless speech is the recording of the same female student reading the same article in Uighur, and the noise material is a 20 minute white noise. Quiet material is a recording in a quiet laboratory. 24 pair of difficult and simple word problems were created according to Mathematics textbook for fourth grade students, in which the simple question only needs one-step calculating while the difficult needs two-step calculating, and there is only one word difference between difficult and simple word question. Moreover, eye tracking technique was used to investigate the real-time ISE in different stages of word problem solving. 35 fifth-grade students were recruited as participants and their eye movements were recording during word problem solving. The results showed that: (1) The mathematical word problems were disturbed by irrelevant background sound. Compared with the performances in quiet conditions, meaningful speech increased the processing difficulty of word problems, and interfered with the overall problem-solving speed and the late stage of problem-solving. (2) By further comparison with meaningless speech, it is proved that the semantic component in the speech background sound is the main factor accounting for interference. (3) The present study also found that white noise promoted the word problem solving to some extent, which was adjusted by the difficulty of the problem. It mainly facilitates the cognitive processing efficiency when solving difficult problems. In conclusion, the present findings contribute to further understanding the mechanism of ISE and have certain practical value to the teaching and learning of mathematics in primary school. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Separation Effect of Emotion Regulation Strategy Usage and Choice Preference: The Moderating Role of Trait Anxiety Yao Yujia, Xu Duo, Sang Biao 2023, 46(5): 1106-1113.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230510 Abstract ( )   PDF (1325KB) ( )   Adopting questionnaires to measure college students' usage of reappraisal and suppression, acceptance, venting, distraction, and through the behavior experiment method to evaluate college students' strategy choice preference, this study aims to investigate the separation effect between usage and choice preference of the five emotion regulation strategies among college students, as well as the influence of trait anxiety on the separation effect. In study 1, a series of questionnaires corresponding to these five emotional regulation strategies were used to investigate their usage, and the GNAT paradigm was used to measure their choice preferences. A total of seventy-five college students were randomly selected. After eliminating invalid participants whose accuracy were less than 75% in the GNAT task, a total of sixty-seven valid data were obtained. The analysis of the final valid data included the analysis of the characteristics of the five emotion regulation strategies in the usage and choice preference, as well as the relationship between them. In Study 2, participants completed the Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-trait) and were ranked from high to low based on their scores on the STAI-trait. The subjects who scored in the top 27% were identified as the high trait anxiety group and the bottom 27% were the low trait anxiety group. Focusing on the correlation between the usage and choice preference of five emotion regulation strategies, the influence of trait anxiety on the correlation between the two groups was emphatically investigated. The results showed that: there were significant differences in the usage and choice preference of the five emotion regulation strategies among college students. Specifically, in the usage of strategies, the frequency of reappraisal and distraction was significantly higher than that of suppression, acceptance and venting, and there was no significant difference between reappraisal and distraction, nor between suppression, acceptance, and venting. In terms of strategy choice preference, the choice preference degree of suppression and acceptance was significantly superior to reappraisal and venting, and distraction was also significantly superior to reappraisal. There was no significant correlation between the usage and choice preference of reappraisal, suppression, acceptance, and distraction, showing a separation effect. However, there was a significant and negative correlation between the usage and choice preference of venting, showing no separation effect. Further analysis showed that the usage of venting had a significant regression coefficient on its choice preference. Trait anxiety did not affect the separation effect between usage and choice preference of reappraisal, suppression, acceptance, and distraction, but affected the separation effect between usage and choice preference of venting. To be specific, with the increase of trait anxiety level, the negative correlation between the usage and choice preference of venting decreases. The present study revealed the usage and choice preference of reappraisal, suppression, acceptance, and distraction were separated, and trait anxiety did not affect their separation effect. However, trait anxiety affected the separation effect between usage and choice preference of venting, that is, students with high trait anxiety have a separation effect, while students with low trait anxiety have no separation effect. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Social，Personality & Organizational Psychology

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How the Two Faces of Charismatic Leadership Affect Subordinates ' Citizenship Fatigue: Exploring the Mechanisms Liu Xiaoyu, Fu Jingyu, Liu Jun 2023, 46(5): 1114-1122.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230511 Abstract ( )   PDF (1330KB) ( )   Because organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) contribute substantially to organizational progress, managers encourage employees to engage in OCBs. However, an overemphasis on OCBs can potentially lead to a state known as ‘citizenship fatigue' among employees. This condition, characterized by feelings of exhaustion, edginess, or fatigue directly linked to OCB engagement, may ultimately result in diminished work engagement and reduced job performance. Citizenship fatigue has received a great deal of attention from scholars and practitioners. Despite that theoretical perspectives have proposed predictors of citizenship fatigue, there remains a noticeable gap in the literature regarding the effect of leadership style on subordinates' citizenship fatigue. Over the past three decades, charismatic leadership has been hailed as one of the most efficacious leadership styles, attracting considerable scholarly attention. Yet, it's a misconception to equate charismatic leadership directly with ‘effective leadership'. Unfortunately, current understanding of its potential downsides remains limited. As recent investigations have started probing into the negative effects of charismatic leadership, the present study aims to delve deeper, exploring how charismatic leadership affects employees' citizenship fatigue. Based on Howell's framework of the two faces of charismatic leadership, this study distinguishes between socialized and personalized charismatic leadership from different power motivations. The Self-determination Theory (SDT) offers a comprehensive paradigm for deciphering the factors that either foster or hamper intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as the innate psychological needs that propagate these mechanisms. As a theory that scrutinizes individual motivation, the SDT is inherently well-suited to elucidate how the two faces of charismatic leadership affect employees' work motivation and behavior. Furthermore, the SDT underlines the profound influence of environmental factors on the genesis of individual motivation. Within an organizational context, citizenship pressure is a significant environmental determinant that shapes employee motivation. Therefore, drawing on Howell's framework of the two faces of charismatic leadership and the SDT, this study investigated the influential mechanism of socialized charismatic leadership and personalized charismatic leadership on subordinates' citizenship fatigue through the mediating mechanism of the OCB motivation and the moderating effect of citizenship pressure based on the three-wave data from 320 employees. The results indicated that: (1) Socialized charismatic leadership diminished subordinates' citizenship fatigue, while personalized charismatic leadership amplified it. (2) Socialized charismatic leadership heightened subordinates' prosocial value motives and impression management motives. (3) Citizenship pressure moderated the relationship between prosocial value motives/impression management motives and citizenship fatigue. As citizenship pressure escalated, the mitigating effect of prosocial value motives on citizenship fatigue intensified, while the exacerbating effect of impression management motives on citizenship fatigue attenuated. (4) Citizenship pressure strengthened the indirect relationship between socialized charismatic leadership and subordinates' citizenship fatigue through prosocial value motives. Conversely, citizenship pressure mitigated the indirect relationship between both socialized and personalized charismatic leadership and subordinates' citizenship fatigue through impression management motives. This study provides several significant theoretical contributions. First, the exploration of the effects of socialized and personalized charismatic leadership on citizenship fatigue deepens our understanding of this phenomenon and enriches the antecedents of OCB motives. Second, this study extends the research on the effectiveness of charismatic leadership by revealing the “black box” between charismatic leadership and citizenship fatigue. This aids in a more profound comprehension of ‘how' and ‘under what circumstances' charismatic leadership influences citizenship fatigue. Finally, this study extends the application of SDT in the workplace context through its exploration of both socialized and personalized charismatic leadership. Simultaneously, this study offers several managerial implications. First, organizations should adopt a dialectical approach to charismatic leadership, to discern the concealed socialized or personalized motives behind a leader's charisma. Second, leaders ought to judiciously advocate for OCBs to avert excessive citizenship pressure and citizenship fatigue among subordinates. Finally, organizations should also focus on nurturing and preserving employees' prosocial value motives, as these are the most advantageous to both the organizations and the employees themselves. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Hubristic Pride and Unethical Pro-Organizational Behavior: The Moderating Role of Moral Attentiveness and Moral Clarity Yang Na, Hou Liang 2023, 46(5): 1123-1130.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230512 Abstract ( )   PDF (1382KB) ( )   As a complex behavior, unethical pro-organizational behavior (UPB) has two attributes of pro-organization and un-ethics. The pro-organization means that the intention behind UPB is to benefit the organization and its members, while the un-ethics means that UPB violates norms, or globally held standards of ethical behavior judged in terms of justice, law, or social norms. With these dual attributes, UPB may benefit the organization and its members in the short term, but it will disrupt the reputation and performance of the organization in the long term. Therefore, to inhibit and reduce UPB, researchers focus on exploring its antecedents. However, the previous antecedent studies of UPB have little knowledge about the influence of moral emotion, and also fail to comprehensively consider both two attributes of UPB, resulting in an incomplete understanding of the formation of UPB. Drawing from the affective infusion model and the moral self-regulation theory, we explore the effect of hubristic pride on UPB and the moderating effects of moral attentiveness and moral clarity. Specifically, we expect that hubristic pride would be positively related to UPB. Moreover, moral attentiveness and moral clarity might weaken the positive relationship between hubristic pride and UPB. We further propose that the interaction effects of hubristic pride, moral attentiveness, and moral clarity on UPB. To test the proposed hypotheses, we conducted a two-wave field study involving 288 employees from a financial company and a railway company in East China. At Time 1, employees assessed their hubristic pride, authentic pride, moral attentiveness, and moral clarity, and provided their demographic information. At Time 2, employees were asked to report their UPB over the past half month. The final matched sample included 205 employees. The results of regression analyses show that: (1) hubristic pride is positively related to UPB; (2) the moderating effect of moral attentiveness on the relationship between hubristic pride and UPB is not significant; (3) moral clarity mitigates the positive effect of hubristic pride on UPB; (4) the three-way interactions of hubristic pride, moral attentiveness and moral clarity on UPB are significant. Our research has three theoretical contributions. First, we explore the influence of hubristic pride on UPB, which enriches the research on the antecedents of UPB. Our work makes up for the lack of attention to moral emotions in the current antecedent studies of UPB. In addition, we consider both pro-organization and unethics attributes of UPB, which is helpful to comprehensively grasp the formation of UPB. Second, our research focuses on the impact of hubristic pride, and enriches and refines the research on pride. By focusing on hubristic pride, this paper shifts the focus of researchers from the whole pride to the specific dimension of pride, which is helpful to provide more detailed research evidence for pride and other emotional research. Finally, based on the moral self-regulation theory, this paper discusses the boundary conditions under which hubristic pride influences UPB from the perspective of moral cognition. By identifying the moderating factors of moral attentiveness and moral clarity, this study clarifies under what circumstances hubristic pride can promote UPB and under what circumstances it does not promote such behavior. The introduction of moral cognition further enriches and complements the influence of emotion on moral behavior from the perspective of rationality. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Does the Regional Multicultural Experience Weaken the Cultural Confidence in Hometown? The Compensatory Role of Cultural Attachment Zhou Ting, Bi Chongzeng 2023, 46(5): 1131-1140.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230513 Abstract ( )   PDF (1519KB) ( )   Multicultural experience refers to the multicultural experience generated by individuals leaving their hometown and living in other cities. Cultural attachment is the sense of security generated by establishing an emotional connection with cultural groups (Hong et al., 2013). Cultural confidence is a positive emotional experience that people give full affirmation of their own culture based on understanding it (Zhou & Bi, 2020). After reviewing the relevant literature, it is found that cross-cultural multicultural experience will change individuals' attitudes towards their hometown culture (Lee et al., 2018; Repke & Benet-Martinez, 2017), but it was not clear whether individuals' cross-cultural experience in the same country/region would affect their cultural attitude toward their hometown. This research explored the relationship between regional multicultural experience and hometown cultural attachment and hometown cultural confidence in the context of domestic population migration through 3 studies. In Study 1, Multicultural Experience Scale, Cultural Attachment Scale (Hong et al., 2013), and Cultural confidence Scale (Zhou & Bi, 2020) were used to assess the relationship between multicultural experience, cultural attachment, and cultural confidence among 222 participants online. In study 2, 149 participants were recruited from a university, and an implicit association paradigm (Karpinski & Steinman, 2006) was added to measure implicit cultural confidence. In study 3, the ingroup preference paradigm (Enock et al., 2018) was employed to measure implicit cultural confidence, and the multicultural experience was primed by reading the material among 85 participants from a university. Study 1 found that the more multicultural experience individuals had, the lower their hometown cultural confidence level would be, but cultural attachment compensated for this effect. Study 2 showed that only the compensation effect of cultural attachment was found on the explicit level, and relationships between implicit cultural confidence and other variables were not significant. The results of Study 3 were consistent with Study 2. There was no implicit compensation relationship, but it was found that hometown cultural attachment promoted both explicit and implicit hometown cultural confidence. Regional multicultural experience challenges hometown cultural confidence, but hometown cultural emotion can integrate into the resilience of cultural confidence. Contemporary people's multicultural experience mostly comes from moving from their economically backward and underdeveloped hometowns to generally well-developed big cities. In the process of comparison between different regions, people will be aware of the deficiencies in the economy, culture, and other aspects of their hometown, reducing blind confidence in their hometown culture. At the same time, the interaction between people and their hometown culture prompts people to perceive, pay attention to and understand the strengths of their hometown culture, and rationalize their positive feelings towards their hometown. Pride in hometown culture shields people from various negative influences and keeps them mentally healthy. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Group Boundary Permeability and Prejudice Toward Immigrants: Examining Mechanisms Ren Deyun, Xu Kepeng, Zhou Aibao, Liu Li 2023, 46(5): 1141-1147.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230514 Abstract ( )   PDF (908KB) ( )   International migration in the process of globalization and rural-to-urban migration in the process of urbanization highlight the importance of group boundary permeability on prejudice toward immigrants, which has received substantial attention. However, the existing theoretical and empirical evidence has suggested that the impact of group boundary permeability on prejudice toward immigrants was inconsistent. Overall, there were three opinions. That is, group boundary permeability had positive, negative, and no effect on prejudice toward immigrants. This was mainly because the psychological mechanisms underlying the complex relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice were still unclear. Two possible psychological mechanisms are proposed in the present study to explain the inconsistent results between group boundary permeability and prejudice toward immigrants. Firstly, the complicated relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice toward immigrants was moderated by individual, group, and situational factors. First of all, for ingroup factors, previous studies revealed that individual's diversity beliefs moderated the impact of group boundary permeability on prejudice toward immigrants. It has been shown that individuals with high diversity beliefs had an adverse impact on prejudice when the group boundary was permeable (vs. impermeable). Conversely, individuals with low diversity beliefs increased prejudice when the group boundary was permeable (vs. impermeable). Moreover, socioeconomic status of the members of the ingroup may be another moderator factor between group boundary permeability and prejudice toward immigrants. Then, for factors of migrant groups, previous studies have shown that the status of immigrants moderated the relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice. It has been shown that group boundary permeability decreased the prejudice toward immigrants from European Union countries (i.e., high status), but increased the prejudice toward those from Third World countries (i.e., low status). Additionally, the size of immigrants may be another moderator factor between group boundary permeability and prejudice toward immigrants. At last, from the perspective of situational factors, previous studies demonstrated that the culture moderated the relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice. Specifically, a robust positive relationship was found between group boundary permeability and cooperation for collectivism culture as opposed to individualism culture. Secondly, the direction-of-effect between group boundary permeability and prejudice was unclear. We proposed that there were two opposing psychological paths between group boundary permeability and prejudice. Group boundary permeability triggered the intergroup threat and common ingroup identity. When the group boundary was permeable, people from diverse outgroups were considered as competitors to the scarce resources and cultures. According to the intergroup threat theory, the threatened individuals are more likely to manifest prejudice toward the outgroup. Meanwhile, a permeable group boundary also blurs the salience of the subgroup boundaries, and then, highlights the salience of superordinate boundaries. Based on the common ingroup identity model, common ingroup identity negatively predicts prejudice toward the outgroup. Therefore, we proposed that the intergroup threat and common ingroup identity played the opposing mediated roles underlying the relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice. Future studies should pay attention to the following fields. Firstly, from the perspective of cross-sectional research, future studies should explore the integrated psychological mechanisms underlying the relationship between group boundary permeability and prejudice toward immigrants. Secondly, from the perspective of longitudinal study, future studies are likely to consider longitudinal studies to explore the effect of intergroup boundary permeability on prejudice toward immigrants over time. Finally, from the perspective of practical intervention, future research should explore possible intervention approaches to reduce the prejudice caused by group boundary permeability References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Childhood Socioeconomic Status and Mental Health of Rural Adult Residents: The Roles of Hope and Subjective Well-Being Meng Keqiang, Li Fenglan, Wang Li, Chen Min 2023, 46(5): 1148-1155.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230515 Abstract ( )   PDF (1204KB) ( )   According to the latest China Mental Health Survey (CMHS), the weighted 12-month prevalence of any mental disorder (excluding dementia) among adults in rural China was much higher than that in urban areas (13.4% vs. 5.5%). To solve this situation, it is important to pay attention to the mental health of rural adult residents and to investigate its potential causes. Prior studies on the impact of childhood socioeconomic status on adult mental health have shown that low childhood socioeconomic status had far-reaching negative effects on adult mental health. However, the existing studies were based on Western samples. The cultural background and social system of rural China are different from Western countries, so the cross-cultural validity of the existing studies need to be verified among Chinese rural residents. Meanwhile, the mechanism underlying the relation between childhood socioeconomic status and adult mental health is unknown. To address this research gap, the current study examined the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status and the mental health of rural adult residents. Drawing from the reserve capacity theory, the life history theory, and the “scarring effect” theory of poverty, this study constructed a chain mediation model that childhood socioeconomic status was related to the mental health of rural adult residents via hope and subjective well-being (SWB). By convenience sampling, 568 rural adult residents (297 men, mean age = 48.00 years, SD = 11.78 years) from 19 villages in a county of Hubei Province were selected. With informed consent, all of them completed a pencil and paper questionnaire (including the revised Childhood Socioeconomic Status Scale, the Chinese version of 12-item General Health Questionnaire, Adult State Hope Scale, Cantril Self-Anchoring Striving Scale) in privacy, and all information collected was self-reported. The measurement tools in this study had sound reliability. Before testing hypotheses, all variables were standardized. SPSS 23.0 was used to test the correlations among variables. The chain mediation model was tested by the PROCESS macro for SPSS. After controlling for demographic variables, the results indicated that: (1) There were significant positive correlations among childhood socioeconomic status, hope, SWB, and mental health. The lower the childhood socioeconomic status, the more likely the rural adult residents would exhibit poor mental health. (2) Hope mediated the relation between childhood socioeconomic status and the mental health of rural adult residents (95% CI = [.016, .039]). (3) SWB mediated the relation between childhood socioeconomic status and the mental health of rural adult residents (95% CI = [.003, .026]). (4) Childhood socioeconomic status affected the mental health of rural adult residents through a chain mechanism of hope and SWB (95% CI = [.003, .011]). This study confirmed the negative impact of low childhood socioeconomic on adult mental health in rural China, by realizing "diluting hope", "reducing SWB", and the combination of the two. These results may inform practice. The promotion of Chinese rural residents' mental health cannot ignore the "upstream" and "remote" factors that affect adult mental health and should focus on early intervention and prevention. The alleviation of rural poverty should pay special attention to the minor children of relatively poor families, and take psychological intervention, particularly to increase their hope and SWB. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Don't Let Intimacy Become Burden: The Double-Edged Effect of Supervisor-Subordinate Emotional Guanxi on Breakthrough Innovation Wan Pengyu, Zheng Junwei, Zhang Zhenduo 2023, 46(5): 1156-1163.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230516 Abstract ( )   PDF (1479KB) ( )   In Chinese organizations where "guanxi orientation" is a typical feature, the superior-subordinate guanxi not only has high local research value, but is also closely related to the effective operation and innovation development of the organization. Previous studies only paid attention to the positive role of superior-subordinate guanxi on employee innovation, little attention has been paid to the emotional guanxi with the most Chinese situational characteristics and its double-edged sword effect on employee innovation. Many questions remain. For example, how to identify the emotional guanxi in the relationship between superiors and subordinates to promote the new progress of local research? Does supervisor-subordinate emotional guanxi have a positive effect on employees' breakthrough innovation just like supervisor-subordinate guanxi? Or are there negative effects? What are the internal mechanisms and boundaries? These bottlenecks make the defects of previous studies that ignored the relationship between superiors and subordinates and ignored its two sides increasingly exposed. Integrating the perspective of "kinship-like" and "tool-like" of the exchange theory, this paper discusses the double-edged sword path and boundary of superior-subordinate emotional guanxi affecting employees' breakthrough innovation through felt responsibility and psychological attachment. We recruited 480 employees from Chinese enterprises in internet communication, intelligent manufacturing and financial securities industry to complete questionnaires using a two-wave research design. Employees were invited to report their perceived supervisor-subordinate emotional guanxi, leader's positive language framework and leader's negative language framework in the first data collection. Then, those participants who completed time 1 surveys were invited back to report their breakthrough innovation, felt responsibility, and psychological attachment. We employed SPSS 26.0 and Amos 24.0 to test our hypotheses. The results of regression analyses showed that supervisor-subordinate emotional guanxi positively affected breakthrough innovation by improving felt responsibility, and leader's positive language framework strengthened the mediating effect of felt responsibility. Supervisor-subordinate emotional guanxi negatively affected breakthrough innovation by deepening psychological attachment, and the mediating effect of psychological attachment was strengthened by leader's negative language framework. The study promotes the research progress of superior-subordinate guanxi in the Chinese context from the emotional perspective, integrates the different perspectives of felt responsibility and psychological attachment, and deconstructs the double-edged sword effect of superior-subordinate emotional guanxi on breakthrough innovation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Offensive Intention, Victims' Original Revenge and Forgiveness on Offenders' Creative Counter-Revenge Zhao Yandong, Zhang Ke, Du Xiumin, Li Zihan 2023, 46(5): 1164-1172.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230517 Abstract ( )   PDF (1896KB) ( )   Despite that counter-revenge appears to be a significant aspect of conflict escalation, scholars have paid little attention to it. Counter-revenge means seeking vengeance following another's act of revenge against you. The offenders' offensive intention might influence their creative counter-revenge on victims, following victims' revenge against them. As cognitive stimulation, victims' original revenge might inspire offenders to take creative counter-revenge. Forgiveness might reduce the offenders' counter-revenge. But whether the offenders' offensive intention as well as victims' original revenge and forgiveness could really influence the offenders' creative counter-revenge on victims, is not clear. The purpose of this study was to explore this question. The current study used a 2 (priming: forgiveness vs. non-forgiveness) × 2 (offenders' offensive intention: intentional vs. unintentional) × 2 (victims' revenge: original vs. common) between-subjects design. Participants were 285 college students. The dependent variable was fluency, originality, and malevolence of offenders' counter-revenge ideas towards victims. First, participants completed a questionnaire that measured their current mood. Subsequently, participants started the priming task. Specifically, participants in the forgiveness priming condition read ten classical sentences about forgiveness, while those in the non-forgiveness priming condition read ten classical sentences about people`s lifetime. Then, they were told the hypothetical scenario describing intentional (e.g., I bumped into a boy intentionally. The boy`s computer dropped on the ground and was broken. I swaggered away without saying anything.) or unintentional offense (e.g., I suddenly received an emergency call. When I hurried on my way, I bumped into a boy unintentionally. The boy`s computer dropped on the ground and was broken. Due to the emergency, I left in a hurry without saying anything), and asked to imagine themselves as the offender. They were also told the hypothetical scenario describing victims' original (e.g., the boy cheated you to eat a fish which was difficult to digest and could cause diarrhea) or common revenge (e.g., the boy funded someone to beat you) on themselves. After that, participants evaluated the originality of the victims' revenge, and answered questions about their offensive intentions and attribution. Finally, they were asked to write down as many counter-revenge ideas as they could think of. Results showed a significant interaction among offenders' offensive intention, victims' original revenge and forgiveness. In the non-forgiveness priming condition, unintentional offenders generated more original counter-revenge ideas than intentional offenders after they suffered victims' common revenge. In the non-forgiveness priming condition, intentional offenders generated more original counter-revenge ideas after they suffered victim's original revenge than suffered victims' common revenge. After they suffered victims' common revenge, unintentional offenders generated less fluent, original, and malicious counter-revenge ideas in forgiveness condition than in non-forgiveness condition. In conclusion, a significant interaction among offensive intention, victims' original revenge and forgiveness was found. The present findings provide evidence to support that the unintentional offenders intend to counter-revenge victims using more original ways than intentional offenders, forgiveness priming can reduce the fluency, originality and malevolence of counter-revenge ideas from unintentional offenders who have received common revenge from victims, and individuals can be stimulated to generate more original counter-revenge ideas after they suffered original revenge from victims, compared with common revenge from victims. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Luck Perception on Consumer Creativity：The Mediating Role of Creative Self-Efficacy Zhao Jianbin 2023, 46(5): 1173-1179.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230518 Abstract ( )   PDF (904KB) ( )   Luck can be compared with experiences and perseverance, allowing researchers to break through the existing ideas, find a way to overcome difficulties, and generate new theories. Creativity is usually defined as the ability to generate novel and appropriate ideas, and to discover and create new things. This is often accompanied by risks and uncertainty. Innovation and creation may lead to unpredictable consequences. Studies reveal that subtle environmental cues can promote or hinder the generation of new ideas. Therefore, the environmental cues of luck can activate an individual's perception of luck, thereby promoting their creativity. In two experiments, we used lottery experience and luck event recall to prime one's perception of luck, and explored how luck affectd the performance of creativity. In general, the results revealed that priming good luck enhanced people's sense of creative self-efficacy, and thereby promoted their creativity. Experiment 1 verified that perception of good luck can enhance one's creativity. We used the lottery experience to stimulate good or bad luck perception of the participants. The creativity test used a structural imagination task. A single factor (good luck vs. bad luck vs. neutral) between-group experimental design was used.One hundred and eighty fivegraduate students participated in the experiment. The results of the experiment revealed that, compared to the individuals who primed perception of bad luck, individuals who primed perception of good luck exhibited higher creativity in the structural imagination task. Experiment 2 verified that creative self-efficacy involves an explanatory mechanism for perceiving luck to promote creativity. The experiment utilized the method of recalling events associated with luck to prime luck perception of the participants, and creativity was measured by utilizing the Remote Associates Test (RAT). A single factor (good luck vs. bad luck) between-group experimental design was adopted, and 165 undergraduate students participated in the experiment. Experimental results revealed that, compared to the individuals who primed perception of bad luck, individuals who primed perception of good luck had higher creative self-efficacy and performed better on the RAT. Creative self-efficacy played a mediating role with respect to the influence of luck perception on creativity. To summarize, compared to the individuals who primed perception of bad luck, individuals who primed perception of good luck exhibited better creativity in the structural imagination task and the RAT. Creative self-efficacy mediated the influence of luck perception on creativity. That it, compared to the individuals who primed perception of bad luck, individuals who primed perception of good luck had higher creative self-efficacy and were more creative. The theoretical contributions of this study are as follows. First, we found that luck perception enhanced creativity of individuals and enables them to be more creative while solving problems. It provides novel evidence for the scientific and positive perception of luck. Second, we verified that creative self-efficacy actd as a mediating variable impacting the relationship between luck and creativity. Third, the paper explores the factors influencing creativity. Research exploring the influence of environmental cues on creativity, mostly focus on the impact of objective physical environmental cues on an individual's creativity. This study explores the influence of luck related cues on creativity, and demonstrates that luck is an important antecedent of individual creativity which can significantly increase creativity. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Spillover Effect of Digital Green Behavior: Mediation of Identity and Moderation of Psychological Ownership She Shengxiang, Li Shicheng, Chen Jing, Sheng Guanghua 2023, 46(5): 1180-1187.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230519 Abstract ( )   PDF (1380KB) ( )   Digital green behavior refers to digitizing the pro-environmental behaviors in people's daily life by means of information technology and recording, presenting and disseminating it in the internet world in the form of text, graphics and video, so as to endow it with symbolic, playful, social and other attributes. This study takes the green energy collection behavior of Alibaba ant forest as the research object to gain insight into the impact of previous digital green behavior on individuals' subsequent digital green behavior and the mechanism. Ant forest is an environmental public welfare project launched by Alibaba in China. It transforms the green life behaviors of Alipay users such as walking, public transportation, and online payment into digital green energy. When green energy is collected to a certain quantity, users can apply for planting trees or protecting a nature reserve. Based on the literature of pro-environmental behavior spillover effect, environmental self-identity and psychological ownership, this study constructed a conceptual model of digital green behavior spillover effect, and put forward four hypotheses. H1: Green energy collection behavior can positively affect ant forest support. H2: Environmental self-identity can mediate the impact of green energy collection behavior on ant forest support. H3: Psychological ownership can positively moderate the impact of green energy collection behavior on ant forest support. H4: Psychological ownership can positively moderate the impact of environmental self-identity on ant forest support. This study adopted a 2 (green energy collection behavior: high, low) × 2 (psychological ownership: strong, neutral) between-subject experimental design. The mediating variable is environmental self-identity, and the dependent variable is ant forest support intention, including purchase intention of products from the ant forest and donation amount willing to provide for reserves. Relying on the "Credamo", a professional survey platform in China, we designed the questionnaire and used the sample tracking function, and finally got 199 valid answers. The study was divided into two stages. In the first stage, the questionnaire was distributed to find two groups of subjects with different levels of green energy collection behavior, and then the high-level and low-level groups were randomly divided into two groups respectively. In the second stage, the psychological ownership manipulation was carried out. Drawing on the practice of peck et al. (2021), we primed psychological ownership by highlighting that the reserve or trees are named by the subjects' nicknames. The results showed that: (1) Green energy collection behavior had a significant positive impact on purchase intention and pro-environmental donation. (2) Environmental self-identity mediated the relationship between green energy collection behavior and support intention. (3) Psychological ownership moderated the impact of environmental self-identity on ant forest support intention. For those who primed strong psychological ownership, the positive impact of environmental self-identity on purchase intention was obviously stronger than the counterpart. In addition, in neutral conditions, environmental self-identity had no significant impact on pro-environmental donation, while in the condition of strong psychological ownership, environmental self-identity had a significant positive impact on pro-environmental donation. This study expands the research on pro-environmental behavior spillover, deepens the understanding of psychological ownership, and contributes a useful exploration for promoting human sustainable behavior through digital pro-environmental behavior. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Having or Lacking Power Leads to Impulse Buying?The Influence of Power and Buying Impulsiveness Trait on Impulse Buying Song Xue, Hou Junru, Li Zhao, Liu Ning 2023, 46(5): 1188-1195.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230520 Abstract ( )   PDF (1355KB) ( )   The approach-inhibition theory and the social distance theory of power support different predictions on the question of how power affects impulse buying. However, there is no empirical research directly testing the above two theories thus far. Therefore, the present research aimed to explore the influence of power and buying impulsiveness trait on impulse buying to answer the basic research question of “Having or Lacking Power Leads to Impulse Buying?”. From the perspective of self-control, we hypothesize that lacking power would lead to impulse buying, even for the individuals with low buying impulsiveness trait. Furthermore, based on the approach-inhibition theory of power, we hypothesize that although having power is not directly related to impulse buying, it can facilitate the conversion of consumers' buying impulsiveness trait into real impulse buying behavior. That is, when having power, the consumers with high buying impulsiveness trait would show more impulse buying behaviors than the consumers with low buying impulsiveness trait. Three studies were conducted to test our hypotheses. Study 1 explored the correlation between individuals' trait sense of power and willingness to make impulse buying. A total of 106 college students participated in the study, and the results showed a negative correlation between participants' scores on the sense of power scale and their willingness to purchase in an impulse buying situation(r = -.23, p < .05). The results of the regression analysis showed that, after controlling for the effect of cost of living and gender, the results remained significant (β = -.237, SE = .10, p < .05, 95%CI = [-.43, -.04]). In Study 2, we manipulated the power (high vs. baseline vs. low) by the recalling method, measuring the number of products bought and money spent by participants in a more implicit impulse buying scenario. After controlling the potential influences of the trait sense of power and cost of living and gender, the results for 173 participants showed that the low-power participants spent more money, F(2, 167) = 2.88, p = .059, ηp2 = .033, and bought more products, F(2, 167) = 5.55, p < .01, ηp2 = .062. The results of study 1 and 2 showed that low power promotes consumers' impulse buying. Study 3 introduced buying impulsiveness trait to explore its interaction with power on impulse buying. Power was manipulated through the role-play imagination. Consistent with Study 2, the results showed that the low-power group spent more money (β = -14.793, SE = 4.13, p < .001, 95%CI = [-22.96, -6.62]) and bought more products (β = -2.002, SE = .53, p < .001, 95%CI = [-3.04, -.96]) than the high-power group. In addition, the interaction between power and buying impulsiveness trait was significant on the quantity of purchase indicator (β = 1.917, SE = .83, p < .05, 95%CI = [.27, 3.56]), low-power individuals regardless of buying impulsiveness traits made more impulse buying(β = -.398, SE = .62, p > .05, 95%CI = [-1.63, .83]); impulsive buying traits of high-powered individuals can predict impulse buying(β = 1.518, SE = .56, p < .01, 95%CI = [.41, 2.67]). Our hypotheses were supported. The current research clarifies, for the first time, that it is low power that leads to impulse buying, which demonstrates that the social distance theory of power has more explanatory power on the directional issue of power affecting impulse buying. Furthermore, from the perspective of approach-inhibition theory, although the findings showed that high power does not promote impulse buying, it can facilitate the conversion of consumers' buying impulsiveness trait into real impulse buying behavior. That is, when having power, the consumers with high buying impulsiveness trait would show more impulse buying behaviors than the consumers with low buying impulsiveness trait. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Openness Personality and the Use of Social Networking Sites in College Students: The Mediating Role of Perceived Media Richness and the Moderating Role of Self-Monitoring Gong Jian, Niu Bingyu, Liu Xiaofei, Li Ye, Zhou Bingping, Hai Man 2023, 46(5): 1196-1203.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230521 Abstract ( )   PDF (1241KB) ( )   Using social networking sites to communicate and maintain interpersonal relationships is an important part of modern life. However, the use of social networking sites is a double-edged sword that the active and passive use will lead to opposite consequences. Since social networks are essentially driven by the human interaction, to truly understand this phenomenon, it is necessary to clarify the personality structure of users on social networking sites. As the basic personality trait representing openness to experience in the Big Five personality model, openness has a stable predictive effect on general Internet use. But previous studies have shown that it has low correlation or even no correlation with social networking sites use. This may because previous studies did not take into account the fact that openness perhaps has opposite effects on active and passive use. In addition, previous studies have also ignored the significant changes that the terminals and usage scenarios of social networking sites in recent years, as well as the lack of attention to the media properties of social networking sites. The most significant media characteristic of social networking sites is their high media richness. Compared with ordinary websites, social networking sites are able to deliver richer and more natural information and are more functional in promoting users' self-portrayal. Based on the media richness theory, the current study suggests that perceived media richness should be an mechanism by which openness influences the active use and passive use of social networking sites among college students, and that this mediating mechanism will be moderated by self-monitoring. A questionnaire survey among 563 college students was administered to explore whether, how, and when openness affects the use of social networking sites. Participants with random responses and a short answering time were excluded, and 508 valid samples were finally recovered (valid recovery rate of 90.23%). All participants were college students aged between 18~25 (M = 20.78, SD = 1.33), including 186 (36.6%) males and 322 (63.4%) females. The results showed that :(1) Openness positively predicted active use of social networking sites, and negatively predicted passive use of social networking sites. (2) Perceived media richness partially mediated the relation between openness and active use of social networking sites (the ratio of mediating effect was 48.73%). (3) Self-monitoring moderated the relation between perceived media richness and the active use of social networking sites, resulting in a stronger mediating effect among participants with high self-monitoring than those with low self-monitoring. (4) Self-monitoring also moderated the relation between openness and passive use of social networking sites, as evidenced by the significant negative predictive effect of openness on passive use of social networking sites for high self-monitoring participants, but not for low self-monitoring participants. This study not only elucidated the specific pathways through which high openness college students benefit from the use of social networking sites, but also revealed the underlying psychological mechanism through which openness affected the use of social networking sites. It also examined the important role of self-monitoring as a boundary condition in the above mechanisms from the perspective of social cognition. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Differential Interpersonal Relationships on People' Expectations for Moral Decision-Making of Intelligent Machines Wu Mingzheng, Yan Mengyao, Lin Ming, Xiong Tianhang, Li Yang, Sun Xiaoling 2023, 46(5): 1204-1211.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230522 Abstract ( )   PDF (1057KB) ( )   Considering the superior intelligence and autonomy of machines, it is about to be a reality that intelligent machines can independently complete decision-making tasks. How to ensure that the decisions made by intelligent machines conform to ethical norms has become the focus of domestic and foreign researchers. At present, most studies were carried out under the background of western culture, debating whether intelligent machines should adopt utilitarianism or deontology in moral dilemmas. This paper explores participants' expectations and evaluations of moral decision-making of intelligent machines under the background of the Differential Mode of Association, a typical phenomenon in the Chinese ethical system. 2 studies were conducted to test whether differential interpersonal relationships would influence participants' decision-making expectations for intelligent machines in moral dilemmas and the mediator role of mind perception. In Study1, 185 participants were recruited to read an adapted trolley dilemma, in which an autonomous vehicle (AV) carrying five passengers was running into a landslide. It had to choose between going straight to hurt five passengers to save one stranger standing at the other side and swerving instead to the other side to hurt the stranger with an aim of saving its passengers. As the manipulation of differential interpersonal relationships, in conditions 1 and 2, one of the five was the AV's owner, a friend of the AV's owner respectively, and in condition 3, all of the five were strangers. Next, we measured participants' expectations for the AV's moral decision-making and their moral evaluations when the AV chose to save its passengers including its owner or owner's friend. In Study 2, to test the robustness of the impact of differential interpersonal relationships on moral evaluations of the favoritism behavior of intelligent machines and mechanism between them, 188 participants were asked to consider moral decision-making situations that were more realistic. According to the nature of behavior, these situations were divided into distributive favoritism situations and protective favoritism situations. Then, they were asked to finish the Mind Perception Questionnaire. The results of Study 1 showed that the number of participants who expected the AV to save its passengers in conditions 1, 2 and 3 was the largest, medium and smallest respectively. In addition, Study 1 found that intelligent machines' favoritism decisions attained higher moral evaluations than fair decisions. These results indicated that differential interpersonal relationships may affect participants' moral expectations and evaluations for the intelligent machines. Study 2 showed that only in distributive favoritism situations, participants' moral evaluations of intelligent machines would be affected by differential interpersonal relationships, and participants gave higher moral evaluations for intelligent machines' favoritism decisions. Meanwhile, participants' experience perception rather than agency perception of intelligent machines acted as a mediator between differential interpersonal relationships and participants' moral evaluations. The current studies partly testified that Chinese participants expected that the intelligent machines would take the closeness of interpersonal relationships into account when they encountered moral dilemmas. Moreover, the closer relationship between intelligent machines and the objects involved in moral decision-making, the stronger the emotion perceiving ability participants assumed the machines would have, and it would be more likely that participants expect the intelligent machines to make favoritism decisions eventually. The current research and its findings go beyond the framework of utilitarianism and deontology, providing a new insight into the ethical design of algorithms of intelligent machines. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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I Can't See Your Pain: The Relation Between Vulnerable Narcissism and Pain Empathy Wu Qi, Tan Huizhong 2023, 46(5): 1212-1219.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230523 Abstract ( )   PDF (1508KB) ( )   Narcissism and its clinical analogue, Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), comprise a set of personality constructs characterized by pervasive patterns of grandiosity in fantasy and behavior, feelings of uniqueness and superiority, excessive need for admiration, a sense of entitlement, arrogance, self-centeredness, and low empathy. With some evidence suggesting that trait narcissism levels are increasing in the world, understanding its consequences is increasingly pressing. As the capacity to recognize and understand others' emotional states and to feel a similar emotion to another person, a lack of empathy in grandiose narcissistic individuals and NPD patients has long been observed. However, the narcissistic trait can also be manifested in a lesser-studied form, vulnerable narcissism, which shares the features of self-absorption, entitlement, conceit, disregard for others and interpersonal antagonism, but presents with low self-esteem, introversion, shame, psychological distress, and fragility. Given its variants in self-regulatory functioning, studies have found that vulnerable narcissism may differently relate to empathy. Will the vulnerable narcissistic trait be negatively associated with empathy for pain? According to the Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model, vulnerable narcissistic individuals need to reduce their attention to pain of others and reduce their level of pain empathy to regulate their emotions and thus maintain a positive view of themselves. In present research, we systematically test this hypothesis by two studies. In Study 1, we investigated whether the attentional bias toward others' painful faces mediates the relation between trait vulnerable narcissism and pain empathy. The level of trait vulnerable narcissism was measured by the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS). The attentional bias toward others' painful faces was measured by the dot-probe paradigm, in which a painful face and a neutral face were presented simultaneously for 500 ms, and the participants had to indicate the positions of the probes after the face presentations. The empathy for pain was measured by using a pain judgement task, in which participants were asked to rate the intensity of pain portrayed by faces of 10 Chinese models. The results of Study 1 showed that, trait level variations in vulnerable narcissism were negatively associated with attentional bias toward painful faces, which in turn led to lower levels of empathy responses to painful faces. In addition, the results also revealed that such an association held even when the effects of control variables, including age, gender, education, positive affect and negative affect, were controlled. In Study 2, we further investigated whether the eye movement pattern in pain perception mediates the relationship between trait vulnerable narcissism and pain empathy. In this study, participants were asked to complete a pain judgment task, in which painful faces or neutral faces was presented for 2000 ms and participants had to indicate the intensity of pain portrayed by those faces in 10-point-scale. Eye movements were tracked by the SMI RED 500 eye-tracker when participants were viewing the faces. Four areas of interests were selected (i.e., areas of forehead, eyes, nose, and mouth). The results showed that trait vulnerable narcissism was negatively associated with the fixation duration within the eye areas of painful faces, which in turn led to the decreasing empathy for pain. In summary, results of the present research support our hypothesis that vulnerable narcissistic individuals have deficits in their ability of pain empathy, which is caused by their reduced attentions toward others' painful faces. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Sensitivity of Depression-Inclined Individuals to Social and Monetary Rewards: The Role of Reward Probability Ba Junxiu, Wang Lijun 2023, 46(5): 1220-1227.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230524 Abstract ( )   PDF (1620KB) ( )   Anhedonia is a core symptom of depression, so depressed people are thought to have a motivational disorder. Several studies have linked depression to decreased neuro sensitivity to monetary rewards, but there is no consistent conclusion as to whether reward passivation can be directly generalized to other types of rewards. Social reward, similar to monetary reward, is a driving force that shapes behavior. The reward probability will influence the individual's anticipation to reward, which in turn will directly affect individual's subsequent behavior. However, there is no study to systematically explore the influence of reward probability on the behavioral performance of depression-inclined individuals regarding different types of rewards. Therefore, this study explored the following three questions. (1) Is there a difference in the behavioral response of depression-inclined individuals in social and monetary reward tasks? (2) Whether reward (social/monetary) and incentive will elicit different behavioral responses in depression-inclined individuals compared to healthy control? (3) How does the reward probability influence the reward sensitivity of depression-inclined individuals on social and monetary rewards? The four-factor mixed experimental design of 2 (reward type: monetary reward, social reward)×2(incentive type: incentive, non-incentive)×2(reward probability: high and low)×2(treatment group: depression inclination, health) was applied, in which only the treatment group was the between-subject variable. The dependent variable was the reaction time and hit rate. According to the Beck Depression Inventory-Ⅱ (BDI-Ⅱ) and Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) scores, 57 healthy participants (BDI-Ⅱ< 14 and SDS indices< .5) and 57 depression-inclined participants (BDI-Ⅱ> 14 and SDS indices> .5) were recruited. The monetary incentive delay task (MID) and social incentive delay task (SID) were administered to investigate the reward sensitivity of depression-inclined group and healthy control in monetary and social reward, in which the successful response is rewarded by money in RMB or "thumbs up" as a monetary reward or social reward respectively. Task difficulty was manipulated by varying the amount of time people had to respond to an item. In the easy condition, most of the items would be slow, all the items averagely appeared for 307.21±167.42ms, the performance standard was to get about 66% of the items correct (high reward probability); in the hard condition, most of the items would be fast, all the items averagely appeared for 251.04±164.47ms, the performance standard was to get about 33% of the items correct (low reward probability). Behavioral results revealed that, under the incentive condition, the depression-inclined group had lower hit rate than healthy control, whereas there was no inter-group effect in the non-incentive condition. In the condition of high reward probability, the response time of the healthy control was significantly shorter than that of the depression-inclined group, but there was no inter-group effect in the condition of low reward probability. The above behavioral results suggest that depression-inclined individuals are less sensitive to reward incentive, and the blunt reward functioning of depression inclination individuals generally exist in social reward and monetary reward. In addition, this bluntness is more obvious under the condition of high reward probability. Furthermore, the reward probability will affect the performance of individuals with depression inclination in different reward types, which may be related to the difficulty of the task and the uncertainty of the reward. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Research on Social Psychological Service in the New Era

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Authoritarian Parenting and Physical Bullying: The Mediation Effect of Aggression Attitudes and the Dual Moderation Effects of Low Self-Control and Teacher Support Zhou You, Xu Boyang, Shi Jingmin, Lin Xiuyun 2023, 46(5): 1228-1236.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230525 Abstract ( )   PDF (1545KB) ( )   Physical bullying is considered as one of the most harmful forms of school bullying, posing threats to individuals' physical and psychological well-being, educational achievement, and healthy development. However, most existing studies have treated school bullying as a whole, and neglected mechanisms underlying physical bullying. The bioecological model, which explores the interaction effects between individual features and ecological systems on individuals' social behaviors, provides an appropriate theoretical framework to explain physical bullying. In the bioecological model, individuals' aggressive attitudes, low self-control, authoritarian family parenting, and teacher apathy have been found to be significant predictors of school bullying. Based on this theoretical framework, the current study built a dual moderated mediation model, providing a systematic understanding of physical bullying and offering evidence-based implications for bullying prevention and intervention programs. Moreover, the study introduced a novel method of moderation analysis, the Polynomial Curved Surface Fitting (PCSF) approach, which can visualize models with dual moderation effects in 3D space. The Revised Bully/Victim Questionnaire, the Short Version of Parental Authority Questionnaire, the Aggression Attitudes Scale in Authoritative School Climate Survey, the Low Self-Control Scale, and the Teacher Apathy Scale were used. The cluster sampling method was adopted to recruit 6638 students from a vocational high school in Shandong Province. A total of 5806 individuals (Mage = 15.75 ± 0.81 years old, 34.7% females) finally participated in this research, resulting in a response rate of 87.5%. Mediation analysis was conducted using SEM with 5000 draw BC Bootstrap. The significance of moderation effects was tested using multivariate linear regression. For single-moderation analysis, the Johnson-Neyman analysis was adopted. The PCSF approach was used to analyze the dual moderated mediation effect. The results showed that authoritarian parenting directly predicted physical bullying. Mediation analysis suggested that individuals' aggression attitudes significantly mediated the relationship between authoritarian parenting and physical bullying. Moderation analysis further revealed that individuals' low self-control significantly moderated the impact of authoritarian parenting on aggression attitudes, with a higher level of low self-control leading to a greater positive effect of authoritarian parenting on aggression attitudes. Additionally, teacher apathy significantly moderated the effects of authoritarian parenting and aggression attitudes on physical bullying, with a higher level of teacher apathy contributing to greater positive effects of authoritarian parenting and aggression attitudes on physical bullying. Moreover, low self-control and teacher apathy significantly moderated the indirect effect of authoritarian parenting on physical bullying, with higher levels of low self-control and teacher apathy leading to greater levels of the mediation effect. The mediation effect increased nonlinearly under the dual moderation effects of low self-control and teacher apathy. The current study not only provides theoretical and practical contributions to understanding physical bullying, but also introduces the PCSF analysis for the models with dual moderation effects. The findings suggest that individual, family, and school domains can interactively predict physical bullying. Family's authoritarian parenting is the primary predictor, which can directly predict physical bullying even after controlling the mediation effect of individuals' aggression attitudes. The risk factors of individual characteristics (e.g., low self-control) and school settings (e.g., teacher apathy) can amplify the mediation effect, showing a nonlinear growth tendency. From a practical perspective, reducing individuals' aggression attitudes and authoritarian parenting while improving individuals' self-control skills and teachers' classroom management skills may effectively reduce physical bullying. From a methodological perspective, the introduction of the PCSF approach has overcome the technical limitations of the Johnson-Neyman approach, providing researchers with opportunities to investigate complicated models with dual moderation effects. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Psychological statistics, Psychometrics & Methods

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A Generalized Nonparametric Q-Matrix Validation Method Wang Daxun, Xiao Qingwen, Tan Qingrong, Cai Yan, Tu Dongbo 2023, 46(5): 1237-1245.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230526 Abstract ( )   PDF (1814KB) ( )   Different from the item response models that postulate a single underlying proficiency, cognitive diagnostic assessments (CDAs) can provide fine-grained diagnostic information on students' knowledge states to support classroom training. The Q-matrix, which links each item to a set of cognitive skills, is necessary to infer students' knowledge states and serves as the foundation for cognitive diagnosis. In reality, domain experts often construct the Q-matrix, which is undoubtedly influenced by their subjective tendencies and, to a significant extent, may contain certain misspecifications. In order to guarantee the accuracy of the Q-matrix, several Q-matrix validation methods have been put forth to find and fix incorrect entries in the known Q-matrix supplied by experts. However, the majority of the currently used methods are parametric methods that are constrained by the sample size or cognitive diagnosis model (CDM).To address this concern, this work developed a generalized nonparametric method to validate the Q-matrix based on the response data, which can be applied to a broad class of cognitive diagnosis models(CDMs). A general nonparametric classification approach (GNPC) has been proposed by Chiu et al.(2018) and can be applied when the model is saturated, and the sample size is limited. Besides, Chiu (2013) also proposed a nonparametric Q-matrix validation method by minimizing the residual sum of squares (RSS) between the observed responses and ideal responses, which can only be used with the deterministic input, noisy and gate (DINA) and deterministic input, noisy or gate (DINO) models. Inspired by these two studies, a generalized nonparametric Q-validation method has been proposed in this paper, and the steps of the method are as follows. First, using the GNPC approach, it is possible to estimate the attribute patterns of each examinee. The ideal response of every examinee on each item can therefore be calculated in the saturated model using the GNPC method. For each item, the residual sum of squares (RSS) of the ideal response and the observed response can be calculated and the item with the highest RSS will be validated first. For the q-vector of an item, a statistic L was constructed and penalized with the sample size and the number of attributes. Finally, the q-vector corresponding to the smallest penalty L is selected as the q-vector of the item. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method were evaluated by simulated data generated under various conditions and an application example in real data. The performance of the method in this research was compared with the RSS method, GDI method (de la Torre & Chiu, 2016), and stepwise method(Ma & de la Torre, 2020). In the simulation studies, a number of pertinent variables were taken into account, such as the percentage of misspecifications, cognitive diagnostic models, sample sizes, and attribute distributions. Results demonstrate that (1) In general, the proposed nonparametric method outperforms the GDI and the stepwise method, and can be used with a broad class of cognitive diagnosis models (CDMs). (2)In the small sample (N<200), the performance of the proposed nonparametric method is the best of the three methods, followed by the stepwise method, and the GDI method performs the worst. (3) The empirical data analysis shows that the Q-matrix, validated by the nonparametric method, has better relative fitting and absolute fitting results. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Clinical Psychology & Consulting

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The Bidirectional Modulation Effects of Oxytocin on Fear Recognition and Its Mechanism Feng Rou, Gu Simeng, Wang Fushun 2023, 46(5): 1246-1253.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230527 Abstract ( )   PDF (1787KB) ( )   Fear recognition plays an important role in human survival and social adaptation. But the recognition accuracy of fear is often the lowest among the six basic emotions, especially in some patients with mood disorders. Oxytocin, a "love" and "attachment" hormone, has been widely used in recent years as a social-emotional cognitive therapy for autism patients. Oxytocin was found to bind to oxytocin receptors in the central amygdala to inhibit fear responses. However, oxytocin can also interact with the HPA axis (Hypothalamus - Pituitary - Adrenal axis), and enhance fear processing under stress. Consistently, intranasal oxytocin application reduced the accuracy and speed of fear recognition by inhibiting amygdala activation. However, some other studies with fear-recognition found that, intranasal oxytocin application enhanced amygdala responses and improved the accuracy of recognition, thereby promoted emotional understanding. These two-way effects were found in both healthy subjects and patients. The mechanism behind them may be related to the interaction between the oxytocin system with the HPA axis, both regulating fear-related behaviors in complex ways. Normally, oxytocin inhibits the medial output of the central amygdala, weakens the activity of the HPA axis, and reduces the secretion of stress hormones (cortisol, etc.) and fear recognition. However, under strong stress, the release of high concentration of oxytocin led to down-regulation of the receptors and the enhancement of HPA axis, and thus to improvement of the recognition of fear emotions. In human studies, the dose and time of oxytocin administration also affect this bidirectional mechanism. In addition, individual differences in the endogenous oxytocin system, such as experiences of early life stress, personality traits, and gender, may also influence the effects of the effects of oxytocin. In all, we can make these conclusions. First, different doses of exogenous oxytocin have different effects. High dose can improve the ability of fear recognition, whereas low dose can reduce the speed and accuracy of fear recognition. Second, the effects of oxytocin follow an "inverted U-shaped" curve after intranasal administration, peaking at about 45 minutes. Third, baseline levels of endogenous oxytocin vary significantly between individuals, and the efficacy of intranasal oxytocin application can be more easily observed by increasing oxytocin doses in attention-deficit individuals with lower baseline levels. In conclusion, there are complex combined mechanisms between exogenous and endogenous oxytocin systems. In the future, we need to pay more attention to the following aspects. First, it is better to combine eye movement with event-related potential technology, and to put more attention on regulation of oxytocin on fear recognition with different emotional cues. Second, facial perception involves multiple brain regions, but the exact mechanism by which oxytocin induces changes in amygdala functional connectivity is unclear and needs further exploration. Third, The HPA axis plays a complex role in the regulation and treatment of mood, social and behavior, but its interaction with oxytocin has been poorly studied. Finally, the individual differences of the subjects should be considered in the experiment, the changes of oxytocin levels before and after the experiment should be tracked, and the interaction between endogenous system and exogenous oxytocin drug therapy should be further studied by using biogenetic techniques. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Empathy on Collaborative Remembering from A Second-Person Perspective Zhang Huan, Li Jingwen, Wang Haiman, Ahati Shamali, He Yunfeng, Lu Chunming 2023, 46(5): 1254-1261.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230528 Abstract ( )   PDF (1237KB) ( )   People usually retrieve and share past experience or knowledge with others, which promotes the formation of collective memory shared within group members. As a fundamental ability to collaborate with others, the effect of empathy on collaborative remembering has attracted widespread interest. Evidence based on behavioral studies has speculated that during the collaborative remembering process of two or more people, the speaker's selective retrieval practice of target items could induce the listener's synchronous “covert retrieval”. Neuroscience studies at the single-brain level revealed that the listener's brain activity during listening to the speaker's selective retrieval practice was similar to that of speaker in the process of remembering. In daily life, however, remembering takes place in a real-time two-way social interaction. Therefore, this study adopted a second-person perspective, and investigated the brain mechanisms of memory retrieval in social interaction and the effect of empathy in this process. We used the retrieval practice paradigm of two-person interaction in the current study. All the participants were randomly paired into speaker-listener dyads. The neural activities in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and right temporal parietal junction (rTPJ) of both the speaker and the listener in each dyad were simultaneously recorded, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-based hyperscanning while they performed the interactive retrieval task. After the final retrieval test, the proportion of correct retrieval of related items was assessed. In order to measure the empathy index, all the participants were asked to complete the scale of “the Empathy Quotient, (EQ)” before the experiment. Behavioral analysis showed that the dyads' empathy was positively correlated with their retrieval accuracy of related items under the retrieval practice paradigm of two-person interaction. The functional imaging results showed that compared to resting state, the interpersonal neural synchronization (INS) in right the temporal parietal junction (rTPJ) was significantly increased during collaborative remembering. Combining the behavioral results with the imaging results, we found that the increased INS in rTPJ was positively correlated with empathy and the retrieval accuracy of related items respectively. Finally, such increased INS mediated the relationship between empathy and the retrieval accuracy of related items in speaker-listener dyads. To sum up, this study demonstrated that empathy had an effect on the outcome of collaborative remembering. In the process of this real-time social interaction, the INS in rTPJ was significantly increased compared to resting state, and such increased INS mediated the contribution of empathy to the retrieval accuracy of related items in speaker-listener dyads. Our results further support that the INS plays an important role in the study of social interaction as a reliable neuro-marker for measuring the relationship between two interactive brains. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Theories & History of Psychology

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Online Research in Psychology and Its Future in China Chen Guoqiu, Gao Xiaoxue, Yan Xinyuan, Du Meng, Zang Yinyin, Wang Yin 2023, 46(5): 1262-1271.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230529 Abstract ( )   PDF (3332KB) ( )   The rapid and global expansion of the Internet has significantly changed the way psychologists conduct research and revolutionized the field of psychology. Traditionally, researchers invite subjects to the lab and run experiments on specialized equipment. Now, researchers can test subjects online and accumulate data through the internet at any time. The outbreak of COVID-19 further manifests the advantages of web-based research over traditional lab-based approaches and demonstrates great promise. In this article, we discussed the past, present, and future of online research in psychology. We provided a comprehensive overview of the literature and explored how to systematically promote and develop this field in China. We first introduced the definition and scope of online research, considering four broad domains of research (e.g., web-based surveys/experiments, big data methods, real-time interactive games, and mobile experience sampling). The strengths and weaknesses of each research domain were outlined and summarized. Next, we reviewed the history of internet research by highlighting key milestones from computer sciences and psychological sciences in the past 50 years and envision the future from both sides. We summarized the methodological issues when conducting research online and suggested the best practical recommendations collected from the literature. Although online psychological research comes with technical challenges, the opportunities far outweigh the costs. Online research is becoming a fundamental part of psychological research. Every subfield in psychology has now begun to leverage online approach and many traditional lab-based paradigms have been adapted to the online version. We provided abundant empirical evidence supporting its reliability and suggested that the online data quality can be as precise and robust as traditional lab experiments. In addition to its methodological advantages, we particularly elaborated on the conceptual advantages of internet research. It has profound benefits on open science, citizen science, and big team science and can be used to address replication crises, generalization crises, ecological validity problems, and WEIRD problems. In the second part of this paper, we focused on the online research community in China and discussed its future development. We pointed out its undeveloped status in China by surveying the scarcity of online studies published, and online research tools and platforms developed by Chinese researchers. By analyzing different factors that could impede the spread and development of online research in China, we offered a couple of suggestions and solutions. We advocate that Chinese psychologists should warmly embrace online research by actively learning the latest literature and technology and seize the opportunities for better science, education, and clinical use. The benefits of doing so became increasingly apparent, including the improved efficiency and accuracy of data collection, the ability to target massive and diverse Chinese participants (both healthy and clinical populations), the implementation of both data-driven and hypothesis-driven research, the opportunity to address imbalanced teaching and research resource across universities and provinces, and ultimately increase the impact of psychological research on society and common people. To achieve this goal, we proposed a public digital infrastructure framework for online research in China. It will serve as a multifunctional ecosystem for participant recruitment (via shared pool crowdsourcing), online tool development (mobile app, smart wearable device), open science practices (data sharing, code and stimuli database), scientists forum (collaboration and Q&A), digital mental health services and popular science on psychology (videos, articles, wiki). The entire idea has now been implemented in NaoDao website (www.naodao.com), an online empirical research platform with a strong emphasis on sharing, transparency, and usability. Finally, we highlight novel methods, emerging trends, and new research directions for future studies. References | Related Articles | Metrics

Theories & History of Psychology

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Developmental Feature and Current Status of Theories of the Chinese Self Wang Zhendong, Li Kang, Wei Xindong, Shi Juan, Wang Fengyan 2023, 46(5): 1272-1278.  DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230530 Abstract ( )   PDF (1028KB) ( )   The self is an important concept in the research of personality psychology and social psychology. Since the rise of cultural psychology in recent decades, many Chinese indigenous psychologists are involved in constructing a Chinese self-theory that fits the characteristics of Chinese society, history, and culture. The existing Chinese self-theories or self-models can be divided into three categories, including individualism/ collectivism oriented Chinese self-theories, differential pattern oriented Chinese self-theories, and protogenetic symbol oriented Chinese self-theories. The individualism/ collectivism oriented Chinese self-theories inherited from the individualism/collectivism dimension in culturology, in the same line with the self-construal theory that divided the cultural self-construal into the independent self and interdependent self, which emerged from the comparison with the western "mainstream modern civilization." The most representative individualism/ collectivism oriented Chinese self-theories include the “four-part theory of Chinese self” proposed by Yang Kwo-Shu, the “dual-cultural self-theory” suggested by Hong Ying-Yi, and the “composite self-theory” proposed by Lu Luo. These theories are generally nested in the individual orientation and social orientation, and the interdependent self to construct the modern Chinese self that is now expanding into a multicultural convergence theory of the self. The differential pattern oriented Chinese self-theories developed from Fei Xiao-Tong's differential pattern theory, which described the Chinese traditional social structure. From a psychological perspective, the differential pattern of social form is considered as internalized psychological differential pattern. That is, consistent with the premise of individual-centeredness, other people around the individuals are given different values and meanings and pulled into the concentric circles of self-identity, forming a "self-centered" form with differential order. On this basis, Yang Chung-Fang, Yang Yi-Yin, Zhai Xue-Wei, and so on, made further development. These theories lean in the direction of sociological research and focus on the extrapolation of the Chinese self in the context of ethical structures and social relations. The protogenetic symbol oriented Chinese self-theories took a different approach and tried to construct a theory or model of the Chinese self by using typical symbols or illustrations with symbolic meanings in traditional Chinese culture. Mandala model of self proposed by Hwang Kwang-Kwo and the Taiji model of self proposed by Wang Feng-Yan et al are representative of this perspective. The theoretical research of the Chinese self has shown following features. (1) The self theories have grown from nothing and expanded from one-way to diversified; (2) The self theories have developed from imitation to innovation; and (3)The tools to research about the self are gradually diversified, but the theory and empirical studies still need to be further combined. An understanding of the outline of the developmental process of the Chinese self-theories will help to understand the rich connotation of the Chinese self-view and lay a solid foundation for further research on the Chinese self. References | Related Articles | Metrics