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Can?Retrieval?Practice?Promote?the?Learning?of?problem-solving??——Testing?Based?on??Retrieval 2022, 45(4): 849-855.  Abstract ( )   Retrieval practice has been tested on the factual materials with low interaction of elements. However, in the actual education, students need to learn both the factual materials and the problem-solving materials. Up to now the retrieval practice has not been found in the highly interactive and complex-programmed materials. The success rate of initial retrieval is a strong guarantee for the retrieval practice. For procedural knowledge, the methods of free recall and problem solving are difficult, which cannot guarantee the success rate of initial retrieval, and it is difficult to observe the retrieval practice. Therefore, in order to ensure the effectiveness of initial retrieval, and finally observe the retrieval practice on procedural knowledge, it is assumed in this study that students should be provided with instructional s in the process of learning to help them construct answers. This study examined the effects of s retrieval on procedural knowledge through two experiments. In experiment 1, 150 undergraduates participated in a 4 (learning conditions: worked example-repeat learning group, worked example-problem solving group, worked example-free recall group, worked example-s retrieval group) 2 (test intervals: immediate test < after 5 minutes>, delayed test <after a week>) hybrid experiment. The results show that the main effect of learning times is significant in terms of the beginner’s performance, the test scores of the second study of homogeneous samples are significantly better than the scores of the first learning samples; however, the main effect of learning conditions is not significant, the differences among the worked example-s retrieval group,worked example-problem solving group and the worked example-free recall group are not significant; in the final test stage, the main effect of the test intervals is significant, the scores of the immediate test are significantly higher than the scores of the delayed test. The main effect of learning conditions is not significant, and there is no obvious retrieval practice. According to the fact that the subjects almost got full scores in the tests of initial and final stage, the ceiling effect appeared in the first experiment, and there was no evidence of the positive influence of instructional suggestions on success rate of initial learning, the second experiment was designed. With the more difficult materials, 116 undergraduates participated in the second experiment, which is a 4 (learning conditions: worked example-repeat learning group, worked example-problem solving group, worked example-free recall group, worked example-s retrieval group) 2 (test intervals: immediate test <after 5 minutes>, delayed test <after a week>) hybrid experimental design. The results show that the main effect of learning methods is significant in terms of the beginner’s performance, the test scores of worked example-s retrieval group are significantly higher than both of the test scores of worked example-problem solving group and worked example-free recall group, in the final test stage, the main effect of both immediate test (after 5 minutes) and delayed test (after a week) is significant, the test scores of worked example-s retrieval group are significantly higher than the test scores of other groups, and the significant retrieval practice was found in the experiment. The results of this study have a positive influence on actual instructions. In the process of learning procedural knowledge which is less difficult, students can promote their learning through learning the homogeneous samples repeatedly or directly solving the homogeneous questions. As for the learning of complex procedural knowledge, teachers can provide students with appropriate instructional s in the course of learning to help students promote their learning and solve problems effectively. Related Articles | Metrics

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Inhibitory Control in Visual Perspective Taking ：A Negative Priming Study 2022, 45(4): 856-862.  Abstract ( )   Visual perspective-taking (VPT) refers to the ability to perceive or understand a situation from an alternative point of view, such as that of another individual. Developmentally, VPT includes two levels: level-1 which is the ability to judge whether another person can perceive what the perceiver saw, and Level-2 which requires the perceiver to understand the way another person view things. VPT tasks typically ask participants to make judgments about what a target person perceive. Previous studies found that participants make more errors and were slower in conducting an inconsistent VPT task in which participants’ self-perspective differs from that of the target person, than in a consistent task in which self-perspective is in line with the target person’s perspective. In addition, studies found that performance in VPT tasks is correlated with people’s ability in inhibitory control. By using the negative priming (NP) paradigm, a few recent studies suggest inhibitory control play an important role in solving level-2 VPT task. The present study tested whether inhibitory control is necessary in solving inconsistent level-1 and level-2 VPT tasks. Experiment 1 tested whether inhibitory control was needed in performing level-2 VPT task. Experiment 1 required participants to judge in which hand a figure in a visual picture was holding a black ball. The task requires participants to understand the way another individual perceive, hence is a level-2 task. By using a negative priming design, the result showed that response time was longer when conducting a consistent task (i.e., the figure in the visual task was a back-facing figure, hence self-perspective is in line with the target person’s perspective) after successfully performing an inconsistent task (i.e., the figure in the picture was front-facing) than after a neutral task. The result indicated that when self-perspective differs from the other person’s perspective, an individual need to inhibit his/her egocentric perspective to successfully view the way the other person perceives. Experiment 2 tested whether inhibitory control was needed in performing level-1 VPT task. The task asked participants to judge the number of dots a figure in a picture could see. The figure in the picture was facing the left-hand/right-hand wall from the view of the perceiver, hence could not see the dots shown in the right-hand/left-hand wall. Therefore, this task evaluates whether participants could judge whether the figure in the picture could perceive what the participants themselves saw, hence, evaluating participant’s level-1 VPT ability. By using a negative priming design, the result showed that participants made more error in a consistent task (i.e., all the dots were in the left-hand wall and figure in the picture was facing the left-hand wall) after they performed an inconsistent task (i.e., some dots were in the right-hand wall but figure in the picture was facing the left-hand wall) than after a neutral task, even though participants performed the consistent tasks equally fast in the two conditions. The result indicated that an individual need to inhibit his/her own perspective to evaluate what the other person could perceive when self-perspective differs from the other person’s perspective. The present study added to the literature by showing that taking other’s visual perspective demands inhibition of egocentric perspective in both level-1 and level-2 visual perspective taking. Related Articles | Metrics

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The impact of visual and auditory stimulus salience on visual dominance effect 2022, 45(4): 841-848.  Abstract ( )   In our daily life, we often receive stimuli from different modalities. Multi-sensory stimuli can generally enhance our processing of information compared with unimodal stimuli. During the processing of sensory information from different modalities, the processing advantage of visual modality over other sensory modalities is called Visual dominance effect. In the past decades such inter-sensory bias among different modalities has been explored extensively. Directed attention hypothesis believes that attention plays an important role in the visual dominance effect, which appears only when attention is focused on the visual modality. Previous studies have found that visual dominance effect could be modulated by endogenous attention or exogenous attention, and most empirical literature have focused on the impact of endogenous attention upon the visual dominance effect or Colavita effect. In the present study, we investigated the influence of bottom-up attention on the visual dominance effect. Specifically, we were interested in whether the salience of visual or auditory stimuli had an impact on the visual dominance effect. By adopting a spatial task-switching paradigm, a unimodal cue (visual or auditory) was presented before the bimodal targets, in which visual and auditory targets were presented simultaneously. On each trial, visual and auditory targets were presented either in left or right side from the center of the screen, which could be either congruent or incongruent. Participants were required to judge the spatial position of targets according to the initial cue. Participants usually respond faster in congruent trials, which is referred to Cross-modal spatial congruence effects. In Experiment 1, we used the salient auditory stimuli to explore whether the salience of auditory stimuli affected the visual dominance effect. The results of Experiment 1 showed that shorter reaction times (RTs) and higher accuracy rates (ACCs) for visual targets than those for auditory targets, and reaction times were faster when the auditory-visual targets were spatially congruent than when the spatial locations of auditory and visual targets were incongruent. For visual targets, the RT differences between congruent and incongruent trials was smaller than that for auditory targets. Furthermore,the visual dominance effect decreased on the condition of salient auditory stimuli. In Experiment 2, visual stimuli of low salience were used to further investigate the change of visual dominance effect. Consistent with the results in Experiment 1, spatial congruence effect was more significant for auditory targets than for visual targets in Experiment 2 and visual dominance effect decreased on the low salient visual condition. Moreover, robust visual dominance effect was observed in both Experiment 1 and 2. In summary, these results indicate that the salience of auditory and visual stimuli could modulate the size of visual dominance effect, although the visual dominant effect is robust. Our results support that exogenous attention of stimuli impacts on the sensory dominance effect. Moreover, visual dominance effect cannot be fully explained by adaptive attentional mechanism, which could be explained by Biased competition hypothesis in the cross-modal interaction. In the process of audio-visual interaction, visual modality has processing advantages over other modalities. Visual stimuli are more salient and tend to attract our attention in purely bottom-up ways, while the processing of auditory stimuli is inhibited. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Time Structure and Velocity Cues on Time to Collision 2022, 45(4): 803-810.  Abstract ( )   Estimating when the occluded moving object arrives at a particular location is called the time to contact. Based on the occlusion paradigm, two experiments (2 physical velocity ×3 time structure) were designed to investigate the impact of the three factors on the TTC by manipulating the time structure, physical velocity and visual velocity. Results: When the time structure is consistent, there is no significant difference in the participants' performance whether the physical speed was fast or slow and whether there were visual speed cues. When the time structure is inconsistent, regardless of the physical speed, the AE of participants under the condition with visual velocity is less than that under the condition without visual velocity. Conclusion: when the time structure is consistent, the participants mainly apply the time structure cue to estimate TTC. However, when the time structure is inconsistent, the participants estimate TTC by integrating the time structure cue and the visual velocity cue. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Awe on Intertemporal Choice: The role of Time Perspective and Temporal Distance Sensitivity Zhen-Hui LIU Lin TongJIN 2022, 45(4): 833-840.  Abstract ( )   Most previous studies have shown that positive emotions could reduce the delayed discount rates and make individuals prefer long-term rewards, while the effect of negative emotions are opposite. Awe is a complex emotion of both respect and fear. How does awe affect an individual's intertemporal choice? Previous studies showed that awe experiences involve changes in time perception, such as ‘I had the sense that a moment lasted longer than usual.’ Awe alters people's perception of time, and individuals feel they have more time available. Does awe affect an individual's intertemporal choice by altering their perception of time? With Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, the Delay-Discounting-Task (DDT) and Affective priming task, the current study aims to explore the influence mechanism of awe on inter-temporal choice, as well as the role of time perspective and temporal distance sensitivity. One hundred and thirty-one college students took part in this experiment, males accounting for 45.1%. Participants completed the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (two time sub-dimensions: Present-Hedonistic Orientation and Future-Orientated) before entering the lab. Subsequently, the participants were randomly assigned to watch an emotional initiation video (awe, joy and neutral) about 5 minutes, which was a short video clip used in previous studies, just as the Planet Earth and Walk on the Wild Side from BBC. After watching the video, the participants reported their current feelings (angry, awe, sad, happy, calm, bored, excited, afraid; 1 = not at all, 7 = very much). Finally, all participants completed the Delay-Discounting-Task. The original and variant paradigm of the Delay-Discounting-Task had 54 trails, which were presented randomly. The results indicate that: (1) compared with the participants under the neutral condition, the discount rates of the participants under the condition of awe were larger; (2) the discount rates under the awe condition decreased more significantly than that of under the neutral condition, implying that, from the original paradigm to the variant paradigm, participants under the awe condition were more sensitive to the difference of the "time" dimension, and thus preferred delayed reward more; (3) for the future-oriented participants, the discount rates under the awe condition were larger than that of under the neutral condition; (4) for the present-oriented, the discount rates under the awe condition decreased more significantly than that of under the neutral condition, suggesting that, from the original paradigm to the variant paradigm, the present-oriented under the awe condition were more sensitive to the difference of the "time" dimension, and thus preferred delayed reward more. In conclusion, compared with participants under the neutral condition, participants under the awe condition were more inclined to immediate rewards. When the difference in the "time" dimension was perceived subliminally decreasing, individuals were more tend to larger and delayed rewards. Compared with the neutral condition, the awe condition also had a greater effect on time distance sensitivity and intertemporal choice. By influencing the time-distance sensitivity, awe can, to a certain extent, balance the future earnings preference of the future-oriented in intertemporal choice. Both awe and pleasure had positive effects on preference of the present-oriented in intertemporal choice, which made them pay more attention to long-term goals. Related Articles | Metrics

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Interword Spaces Facilitate Chinese Reading: Evidence from reading Right to Left 2022, 45(4): 826-832.  Abstract ( )   Abstract: Interword spaces play very important roles in spaced alphabetic language for delimiting word boundaries. When spaces between words are removed. reader's reading efficiency will be reduced significantly, word identification also will be disrupted. In unspaced languages, such as Thai, inserting spaces between words was proved to improve reading. Although Chinese script is normally printed as continuous strings of characters, word identification is one of the critical processes in reading. Number of studies explored whether inserting spaces between words could improve the reading efficiency of Chinese readers, and found no evidences supporting any facilitation or disruption of interword spaces had on reading. Researchers provided that the null effect was due to the trade-off between the facilitation of inter-word spaces and the interference of unfamiliar inter-word spaces text. Studies using Chinese second language beginners as the participants, who were much less experienced in reading Chinese texts without spaces between words, to investigate the effect of inserting word spaces on their reading. They found that participants benefited from introducing the inter-word spaces. However, Chinese second language beginners still have experiences in reading Chinese texts, at the same time, they were less skilled Chinese readers which may confuse the results. In current study, we manipulated the presenting direction of Chinese text, including normal text presented from left to right and text presented from right to left, which the readers had no experience in reading such a text. We also manipulated the appearance of spaces between words (presented vs. absent) and frequency of the target words (high vs. low). 48 undergraduates participates were asked to read sentences and their eye movements were recorded using the Eye Link 1000 Plus Eye tracker. Results of sentence level analysis showed that the efficiency of reading the text written from right to left was significantly lower than that of reading the normal presented text written from left to right, which was manifested as longer average fixation time, more fixation counts, and longer total reading time. Inter-word spaces did not promote participants’ reading efficiency when they read normal presented text written from left to right, which is consistent with previous studies. However, when they read the text written from right to left, word spaces facilitated readers’ reading compared to reading text without spaces due to readers spent shorter total reading time and made less fixations. For the word analysis, we observed a significant frequency effect which showed that the fixation time spent on high frequency target words was significantly shorter than that on low frequency target words, but such word frequency effect were not qualified by the presentation direction or the appearances of word spaces. In addition, we also obtained space effect and presenting direction effect due to readers spent shorter fixation durations on target words with inserting interword spaces(and reading from left to right) compared to process unspaced words (reading from right to left).These findings suggested that introducing word spaces as word segmentation cues facilitated Chinese reading of readers who were lack of such reading experience, which supports the trade-offs hypothesis. Moreover, introducing word spaces promotes reader's word identification. Related Articles | Metrics

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Backfired? Immediate Enhancement Effect and Post-Suppression Rebound Effect of Thought Suppression 2022, 45(4): 820-825.  Abstract ( )   In daily life, individuals tend to experience unwanted intrusive thoughts. Intrusive thoughts not only can interfere with an individual's attention and executive functioning, but also impair their performance on everyday tasks. In order to have good physical and mental health, individuals often need to suppress the occurrence of unwanted intrusive thoughts, namely, thought suppression. Thought suppression is one of the most commonly used self-regulation strategies of individuals, and it is the basic component of individual cognition. However, individuals may encounter immediate enhancement effect in the process of thought suppression. Individuals may encounter post-suppression rebound effect after thought suppression. Immediate enhancement effect refers to the effect of suppressing the enhancement of the expression of the target during suppression, while post-suppression rebound effect refers to the effect of suppressing the enhancement of the expression of the target after suppression. These two effects defeat the purpose of suppressing thoughts and can damage the mental health of normal individuals. More importantly, they are one of the predisposition factors of mental disorders and can also make mental disorders forms a vicious circle. Therefore, how to effectively reduce the above two effects and improve the efficiency of thought suppression has become an urgent problem to be solved in the study of thought suppression. In order to solve this problem, some researchers explored the internal processing mechanism of thought suppression, and successively proposed four theoretical models to explain the internal processing mechanism of thought suppression, namely, Distracter Associations, Ironic Process Theory, Goal Interruption and Motivational Inference Model. The four theoretical models explain the internal processing mechanism of thought suppression from the perspective of information processing and motivation respectively, and enhance our understanding of the working principle of thought suppression. Although there are disputes among theories, the Ironic Process Theory is the most widely accepted theory, which fully explains the processing mechanism of thought suppression. In addition, some researchers have looked for factors that affect thought suppression. Researchers found that individual's cognitive load, depressive mood, blood sugar levels, heart rate variability and mental disorders affected the immediate enhancement effect. The nature of distractions and inhibitory targets, depressive mood, motivational attributions (meta-cognitive), attachment styles, and dementia affected the post-suppression rebound effect. In short, existing studies had explored the internal processing mechanism of thought suppression, and also looked for many factors influencing the thought suppression. This is of great significance of the development and perfection of the theory of thought suppression and the improvement on the physical and mental health of individuals. However, in order to further improves the efficiency of thought suppression and effectively reduce the adverse effects of immediate enhancement effect and post-suppression rebound effect on individuals, there are still many important issues to be further explored. First, it is necessary to further improve the measurement methods of thought suppression. Secondly, future research should also explore the impact of the individual's situation on thought suppression. Thirdly, it is very important to integrate the theoretical explanation of thought suppression. Finally, it is of great significance to develop new thought suppression methods to improve the condition of patients with mental disorders. Related Articles | Metrics

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Power and Patience: The Influence of Power on Time Perception and Intertemporal Choice 2022, 45(4): 770-777.  Abstract ( )   Sense of power is a feeling under asymmetric control over valued resources. Previous studies suggest that individuals with a high sense of power exhibit more patient behaviors, which are characterized by (a) preference for later and larger rewards in intertemporal decisions and (b) more persistence with challenging tasks. We propose that the patience is not limited in behaviors, but could also be manifested in time perception, moreover, time perception is the mechanism behind the influence of power on patient behavior. Two streams of literature support this hypothesis. First, the social distance theory of power argues that high power leads to high construal level, and abstract thinking (high construal-level) affects individuals' perception of time and predictions of task duration. Second, the situated focus theory of power suggests that a high sense of power allows high-power individuals to focus more on the task, as a result, underestimating the same objective time interval. In addition, studies in the field of addiction and self-control suggest that individual differences in time perception are closely related to temporal discounting in intertemporal decisions, and the change of time perception caused by the change of mental state can also affect intertemporal decisions and persistence. Based on the above research, we propose that people in high power experienced time as passing more quickly than people in low power (H1); high power leads people to prefer larger future gains to smaller immediate gains (H2); time perception mediates the influence of power on intertemporal decisions (H3). We tested the hypothesis in two studies. In study 1, the sense of power (high vs. low) were manipulated using the priming method of power experience recall, the average of three estimated 30 seconds in the time production task was measured, and the potential influence of emotion was excluded. 79 college students were recruited in the study. The results showed that the high-power group produced longer time intervals than the low-power group in the time production task [F(1, 75) = 6.73，p = 0.011， = 0.082]. In other words, high-power individuals experienced time as passing more quickly, and were more patient. Study 2 adopted the role-playing method to prime the sense of power, and added the pretest of time production to eliminate individual differences and the intertemporal decision task to reflect patient behavior. 72 college students were recruited in this study. The results showed that there was no significant difference in time production between the high-power group and the low-power group in pretest [F(1,68) = 0.04，p = 0.842], while the high-power group produced longer time intervals than the low-power group in the post-test time production task [F(1,68) = 8.04，p = 0.006，= 0.106]. There was no significant difference in intertemporal decisions between the high-power group and the low-power group [F(1, 68) = 1.65，p = 0.203], while the indirect effect of time production on the influence of high power on intertemporal decision was significant (β = 0.231, 95% CI = [0.0427, 0.4744]). In conclusion, high sense of power makes individuals more likely produce longer time intervals, be more patient, and then prefer later and larger rewards in intertemporal decisions. To our knowledge, the present research is the first study to explore the effect of power on the time perception thus far, it provides a new perspective of time perception to explain the influence of power on patient behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Is self-transcendence necessary for wisdom? The relationship between wisdom and self-transcendence Wen-Tao Xu Fengyan FengyanWang 2022, 45(4): 778-784.  Abstract ( )   Although there is a close relationship between wisdom and self-transcendence, it is still necessary to systematically analyze how they are related, which will help to further understand the structure of wisdom and the connotation of self-transcendence. Some consider self-transcendence and wisdom to be different psychological constructions. The former can promote individual wisdom performance. Wisdom is embodied in the specific performance of individuals in social situations, determined by the interaction between individuals and the environment, and is relatively independent of individual characteristics. Researchers mainly focus on the promotion of self-transcendent cognitive mindset to individual's wise performance in dealing with life difficulties or conflict problems. The second view is that self-transcendence is an aspect, a subcomponent, or a type of wisdom. This view mainly defines wisdom from the perspective of personality trait orientation, and holds that wisdom is a relatively stable ability or trait of an individual, so self-transcendence is directly incorporated into the multiple construction of wisdom, which directly indicates the self-transcendence attribute of wisdom. Wisdom occurs in three levels: within individual, between individuals and super individuals. The three intelligence components corresponding to the field of superindividual are: self-transcendence, recognition of limits of knowledge and understanding, and philosophical/spiritual commitments. Evidence supports the idea that transcendent wisdom and practical wisdom are two types of wisdom. Some researchers define and measure wisdom by self-transcendence and think that self-transcendence is the core of wisdom. Practical wisdom depends on the requirements of culture, or the times, different cultures and societies have different criteria, and self-transcendence is a kind of existence beyond situation, culture, and the times, which is not transferred by the will of society or the times. This view, as a theoretical orientation of wisdom connotation, focuses on the importance of self-transcendence to individual wisdom, emphasizes the core position of self-transcendence in the construction of wisdom, and conforms to the religious and philosophical traditions that attach importance to internal thoughts and spiritual experience, which is also in line with the general cognition of the public about the secularity of wisdom. Based on the two orientations of trait wisdom and state wisdom and the study of self-development, we put forward the Multilayer Model of Wisdom (MMW). State wisdom research focuses on the wise performance of individuals in life situations, which is the outermost layer of wisdom. Trait wisdom research regards it as one kind of relatively stable ability or trait of an individual, which is the stable carrier of the existence of wisdom and the psychological basis of its presentation. At a deeper level, wise self of self-transcendent is the core of the wisdom personality and even the whole wisdom psychological process. By integrating various wisdom theories into the wisdom depth model, we can not only integrate the previous views on the relationship between wisdom and self-transcendence, but also find the more appropriate explanation level of each wisdom theory and the meaning behind it. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Self-Compassion on Sleep Quality: The Mediating Roles of Positive Affect, Negative Affect, and Self-Control 2022, 45(4): 785-793.  Abstract ( )   The rapid changes in lifestyle have led to increasingly complex environments for Chinese residents, and various sleep problems have become more common, including difficultly in falling asleep and waking up easily. Sleep, as an important physiological process for individuals to integrate body functions, restore energy and consolidate memory, is closely related to physical and mental health. Sleep quality is an important indicator for physical and mental health, and quality of life. Recent studies have shown that self-compassion, as a healthy self-attitude, is closely related to individuals’ sleep quality. However, the current research on how self-compassion influences sleep quality is still limited, and its mechanism is still unclear. Based on current literatures, self-compassion is closely related to individuals’ positive affect, negative affect, and self-control. At the same time, positive and negative affect, and self-control are proved to have wide influences on individuals’ sleep quality. Therefore, in the current study, we aim to reveal the psychological mechanism about how self-compassion predicts sleep quality through positive and negative affect, and self-control, thus helping people who suffer from poor sleep quality. This research collected self-reported data from 477 adults through the Internet (175 males, 302 females, average 31.7 years). The level of self-compassion was measured with the Self-Compassion Scale. The Positive and Negative Affect Scale was used to gather participants’ levels of positive and negative affect. Self-control and sleep quality were assessed by the Self-Control Scale, and Self-Rating Scale of Sleep. We analyzed the mediation effects of positive and negative affect, and self-control with AMOS 23.0. The main results of this study are as follows: (1) The correlations between each pair of self-compassion, positive affect, self-control as well as sleep quality were all significantly positive. The above variables were all negatively correlated with negative affect. (2) The direct effect of self-compassion on sleep quality was not significant, but self-compassion could predict sleep quality through the complete mediating effects of positive and negative affect, and self-control. There were four indirect paths: through the mediating role of positive affect; through the mediating role of negative affect; through the mediating role of self-control; through the chain mediating role of negative affect and self-control. Our study enriches the relevant research on self-compassion and complements the mechanism about how self-compassion predicts sleep quality. Our findings also shed light on how to handle individual sleep problems. Self-compassion is a dynamic psychological variable that can be adjusted. Brief and easy self-compassion-related trainings in daily life can help individuals improve their self-compassion levels, which provides a great opportunity for future interventions. However, in our study, the cross-sectional design was adopted, which made it difficult to determine causal links between the variables. Secondly, this study only focused on the effects of limited demographic variables such as gender and age on sleep quality, but more variables( e.g., family economic status, education) may play their roles in the relationships among self-compassion, positive and negative affect, self-control, and sleep quality. More demographic variables should be included in future studies to increase the generalizability of the findings. In addition, separately measured positive and negative affect may not accurately reflect individuals’ current emotional states. Future research can employ more comprehensive affect indicators, such as Affect Balance, to re-verify the reliability of the conclusions. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of word frequency and reading mode on the word boundary effect during Chinese sentence reading Ming-Zhe ZHANG 2022, 45(4): 794-802.  Abstract ( )   In multi-line text reading, multi-character words at the end of line are often divided across two lines. Unlike English, when Chinese words are displayed across two lines, hyphens are not used after the first part of line-final words. Many studies have shown that words play an important role in Chinese reading. So, does presenting a word on two lines interfere with reading? Li, Zhao, and Pollatsek (2012) found the word boundary effect—the processing times were longer in the divided-word condition than in the word boundary condition. This study further explores the influence of word frequency and reading mode on the word boundary effect. High-frequency words are often stored as a whole in memory, but low-frequency words are more likely to be stored in the form of single characters. It is therefore predicted that the word boundary effect for high-frequency words will be larger. Silent reading and oral reading are two common reading modes. The need for pronunciation consumes more working memory resource in oral as compared to silent reading. When a word is presented across two lines, the reader needs to store the first character information in the working memory. Because the working memory load of oral reading is higher than that of silent reading, it is anticipated that the word boundary effect is stronger in oral reading than silent reading. The experimental used a 2 (presentation condition: word boundary condition vs. divided-word condition) × 2 (word frequency: high vs. low) × reading mode (silent reading vs. reading aloud) within-subject design. The target words were of either high frequency or low frequency, embedded into a same sentence frame. In the word boundary condition, two characters belonging to same word were located at the end of the line. In the divided-word condition, the first character was at the end of the line, and the last character was at the beginning of the next line. Using the EyeLink Portable Duo eye tracker, 48 participants’ eye movements were recorded during reading sentences of different conditions silently and orally. The target word and before and after it was defined as a region of interest. The experimental found the main effect of presentation condition, word frequency, and reading mode for gaze duration, total fixation duration, and total number of fixations. Gaze durations and total fixation durations were longer, and total number of fixations were greater in divided-word, low frequency, and oral reading condition. The presentation condition by word frequency interaction was significant on gaze duration, with a larger word boundary effect for high-frequency compared to low-frequency word. There were also significant interactions between presentation condition and reading mode on gaze duration and total number of fixations, with a larger word boundary effect during oral reading than silent reading. The results show that the presenting a word across two lines interferes with reading, and this interference is affected by word frequency and reading mode. When constructing a more ecologically valid models of eye movement control for multi-line text reading, it is necessary to consider the word boundary effect and the influence of word frequency on this effect. The discovery that dividing a word across two lines interferes with silent and aloud reading has certain application value. In typesetting, the presentation of a word across two lines should be avoided by adjusting the inter-character spacing to improve reading efficiency. Related Articles | Metrics

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Using Citespace-based Bibliometric Analysis to Examine the Hotspots and Trends from 20 Years of Research on Eye Movements in Reading 2022, 45(4): 811-819.  Abstract ( )   Reading plays an important role in our daily life, and eye tracking techniques have been extensively used to reveal important aspects of on line cognitive processing during reading. Over the past century, many scholars have conducted a great number of studies on the basic phenomenon and the underlying mechanism in the field of eye movements during reading. However, recently some new changes have taken place in terms of research topics, methods and techniques in this research field. How do researchers quickly capture and understand the main hotspots and trends of current research when they face so much knowledge? The mastery of these information will facilitate to carry out work efficiently, put forward new research questions, and further promote the development of eye movements in reading research. Many literature reviews are conducted through subjective analysis or meta-analysis, which to some extent, provide a good overview of the main content and research advances of a particular field. However, there are some limitations to these types of literature review, because they are not intuitive in the form of charts, and cannot include all the literature in this field. Therefore, bibliometric analysis is a good tool to carry out visualization on the literature of the eye movements in reading. In this study, the bibliometric analysis was used to examine the recent 20 years of research on eye movements in reading based on the original data of articles that were retrieved from “the Web of Science” database, and the index is “Science Citation Index Expanded” and “Social Sciences Citation Index”. The timespan was set from 2000 to 2021. The “eye movements” and “reading” were used as the topic words. What’s more, only articles and reviews were included, other document types (such as conference papers, abstracts, editorial materials, book chapters, letters, corrections and data papers) were excluded. Finally, a total of 3313 articles were included. CiteSpace 5.7.R2 was used as the tool for bibliometric analyses. The date of retrieval was March 6th, 2021. The preliminary results show that, firstly, publications of eye movements in reading have rapidly increased in the past two decades. Secondly, based on the Document Co-Citation Analysis and the timeline visualization of clusters, the E-Z Reader model and SWIFT model were the two influential computational models of eye movement control in reading. It is important to understand the critical controversies between the two models such as can readers extract semantic information from parafoveal words? do the linguistic properties of the upcoming parafoveal word influence processing of the currently fixated foveal word? Furthermore, the Linear Mixed-effects Models (LMMs) have been increasingly used in the field of eye movements in reading. Compared with traditional methods (e.g., ANOVA), the Linear Mixed-effects Models incorporate both fixed effects and multiple random effects, making data analyses more flexible and reliable. These advantages make LMMs become a standard method in the study of psychology of reading. Finally, keywords with the strongest occurrence burst and references with the strongest citation burst indicate that predictability will be a hot and flourishing topic in the near future. The question of how predictability effect occurs and affects at which stage of lexical processing (lexical access, a pre- or post-lexical stage) during reading requires further evidence. Predictability plays a vital role in constructing a comprehensive model of eye movement control in reading. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Adolescents and Their Parents’ Depression: A Cross-Lagged Regression Analysis 2022, 45(4): 973-979.  Abstract ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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Social Emotions and the Stressful Factors in Different Social Classes during Work Resumption after COVID-19 Outbreak Ying -Yang Xiang-Jing KONG Lijuan Cui Yan WANG Qi /Yao 2022, 45(4): 980-987.  Abstract ( )   The COVID-19 pandemic has threatened peoples’ health and social life, and also exerted a great impact on national and personal income. During major public emergencies, people’s social emotions and mentality changes as the pandemic progresses. However, the pandemic would not affect all social members in a similar way. Previous research has demonstrated that social class has a profound influence on individuals’ social cognition, emotion, and behavior. Facing the pandemic, people in low social class have relatively less access to public and private resources, which may lead to more psychological distress and physical symptoms. Since mid-February, China has rolled out active precaution measures while resuming production and work gradually and safely. During this period of post-pandemic, the people in low social class may confront a higher risk of unemployment and perceive higher economic stress. The present study aims to investigate how people from different social classes might perceive and respond to stress during work resumption and to explore how their social emotions and perceived stress change over time. We conducted online surveys among Shanghai citizens at three time points approximately one week apart, with 1073 adults participating in the first survey (T1), 983 adults participating in the second survey (T2), and 1078 adults participating in the third survey (T3). Since Chi-square and One-Way ANOVA showed that there were significant differences in demographic variables among the three samples, we added the control variables (i.e., gender and age) in the following analyses. We measured social class indexed by income and education level and social emotion including positive affect and negative affect at all three time points. Besides, we measured perceived stress (i.e., safety-related stress and economic stress) and the desire to back to work at T2 and T3. All the measures showed good reliabilities and validities in the current study. The results indicated that: (1) Participants experienced higher levels of positive affect than negative affect at three time points during work resumption (Total, t(3133) = 34.15, p < .001, d = 0.61；T1, t(1072) = 8.03, p < .001, d = 0.25; T2, t(982) = 24.06, p < .001, d = 0.77; T3, t(1077) = 30.87, p < .001, d = 0.94). Also, participants’ emotions became more and more positive over time, manifested by increased positive affect (T2 > T1, β = 0.20, p < .001; T3 > T2, β = 0.09, p < .001) and reduced negative affect (T2 < T1, β = -0.22, p < .001; T3 < T2, β = -0.07, p = .002). (2) The relationship between social class and positive affect was significant (β = 0.08, p < .001), and the relationship between social class and negative affect was also significant (β = -0.15, p < .001), indicating that low social class people were less positive and more negative than their higher-class counterparts. The interaction between measuring time and social class was not significant. (3) Participants perceived less safety-related stress over time (β = -0.05, p = .028), but experienced almost same level of economic stress (β = -0.001, p = .96). Besides, social class was positively related to safety-related stress (β = 0.06, p = .012), while negatively related to economic stress (β = -0.13, p < .001), indicating that low-social class individual was more likely to suffer from economic stress, while high-social class individual experienced more safety-related stress. There was no significant interaction between measuring time and social class on either safe-related stress or economic stress. (4) We found that people in lower social class have stronger desire to get bact to work (β = -0.16, p = .004). (5) Safety-related stress significantly mediated between social class and positive affect (indirect effect = -.004, 95% CI [-.016, -.001]) and negative affect (indirect effect = .018, 95% CI [.012, .057]), while ecnomic stress significantly mediated between social class and negative affect (indirect effect = -.032, 95% CI [-.080, -.038]). The current study has found significant differences in social emotion and perceived stress between different social classes. People in lower social class were more negative and perceived higher economic stress, while the higher social class population was more anxious about safety. These findings have a compelling implication on implementing targeted policies which help the lower social class population to cope with, resist, and recover economically from the major public emergencies and regain their positive emotions and happiness. Related Articles | Metrics

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Consumers’ responses to word-of-mouth communication on socially distant versus close SNS: The mediating roles of construal level and processing fluency 2022, 45(4): 910-917.  Abstract ( )   By searching out advice from others, Word-of-Mouths (WOMs) generated from Social Network Sites (SNSs) can exert important impacts on users’ product choices. Based on the difference of social relationships among SNS users, SNSs can be divided into two types: socially distant SNSs and socially close SNSs. Based on Construal Level Theory (CLT), we studied the effects of these two types of SNSs on consumers’ responses to WOM relevant to high/low level construal communication. A series of experiments were conducted to test our hypotheses. In experiment 1a and 1b, pictorial versus verbal reviews of products were used as WOMs relevant to high versus low level construal. Experiment 1a employed a 2 (SNS types: socially distant vs. close) × 2 (WOM types: high vs. low construal level) between-subjects design, and used SinaBlog vs. WeChat as socially distant vs. close SNSs. Experiment 1b employed the same design as experiment 1b, but manipulated socially distant vs. close SNSs using Zhihu vs. Q-zone. Results of experiment 1a and 1b showed that participants who were on socially distant SNSs were more likely to be persuaded by WOMs relevant to high level construal in comparison to participants on socially close SNSs, by contrast, participants on socially close SNSs were more likely to be influenced by WOMs relevant to low level construal than participants on socially distant SNSs. These results provide evidence for a congruency effect between SNS types and WOM types. In experiment 2, we further studied the mechanism underlying the congruency effect between SNS types and WOM types. We used the same design as employed in experiment 1a, and manipulated high vs. low level construal WOMs by emphasizing primary goal-relevant vs. incidental goal-irrelevant features of products, and used SinaBlog vs. WeChat as socially distant vs. close SNSs. To test the hypothesis, we conducted a moderated serial mediation analysis. The results revealed that the socially distant vs. socially close SNS induced a higher vs. lower construal level, which then interacted with WOM types which jointly impact processing fluency that in turn impacted purchase intention (such that in the high construal level WOMs condition, a higher construal level induced higher processing fluency, thus leading to higher purchase intention; in the low construal level WOMs condition, a lower construal level induced higher processing fluency, thus leading to higher purchase intention).This result confirmed the mechanism underlying the congruency effect between SNS types and WOM types, in which WOM types moderated the chain mediating effect between SNS types and WOM types by means of moderating the effect of construal level on processing fluency. Findings from this research make several important contributions. First, they contribute to the SNS literatures by providing valuable insights into understanding how the social distance of SNSs affects persuasions of WOMs. Second, they add key evidence to the CLT literatures by uncovering the process mechanisms of the congruency effect between socially distant/close SNSs and high/low level WOMs. Moreover, our findings also provide practical implications for marketers on how to most effectively motivate WOM communication in SNSs in order to generate optimal diffusion of product information. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Imagined Intergroup Contact on Cooperative Behavior: The Mediating Role of Implicit Gender Prejudice 2022, 45(4): 918-925.  Abstract ( )   Imagining positive contact with outgroup members can improve intergroup attitudes and promote more positive intergroup relations. In the society, the implicit gender prejudice still exists among the opposite sex, which will lead to individual's unwillingness to have social contact with the opposite sex, even produce antagonistic reactions, and reduce or inhibit the communication and cooperation between the opposite sex. Many studies proved that imagined positive contact can improve the cooperation intention with outgroup members, but the future behavior intention of individuals may not be transformed into positive intergroup behavior. Therefore, this study conducted two experiments to explore the influence and mechanism of imagined intergroup contact on implicit gender prejudice and cooperative behavior by Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) and three cooperation paradigms. Experiment 1 examined the effect of imagined intergroup contact on implicit gender prejudice. Participants were 161 undergraduates (79 boys and 82 girls). Experiment 1 was conducted with a 2 (imagined contact: imagined positive contact, neutral imagined scene) × 2 (gender: male, female) between-subjects design. Participants were asked to finish the questionnaire of prior contact experience, imagine positive contact (experimental condition) or unrelated situations (control condition), and complete the task of SC-IAT. The results show that: (1) Imagined positive contact can significantly reduce the implicit gender prejudice of the opposite sex ( F(1, 156)=11.23, p<.01, η2=.07 ); (2) There is no significant gender difference in the implicit gender prejudice of the opposite sex. These findings suggest that imagined intergroup contact can effectively reduce the implicit prejudice by arousing individual's positive emotional experience. Experiment 2 examined the effect of imagined intergroup contact on cooperative behavior and the mediating role of implicit gender prejudice. Participants were 100 undergraduates (37 boys and 63 girls). Experiment 2 was conducted with a 2 (imagined contact: imagined positive contact, neutral imagined scene) × 2 (gender: male, female) between-subjects design. The previous process was the same as Experiment 1. Finally, participants were asked to complete three cooperation paradigms, namely prisoner's dilemma, public resources dilemma and public goods dilemma. The results show that: (1) In the prisoner's dilemma, imagined positive contact can significantly increase the cooperative behavior between the opposite sex ( F(1, 95)=10.13, p<.01, η2=.10 ), and implicit gender prejudice plays a partial mediating role ( 95%CI [.004, .062] ); (2) In the public resource dilemma, imagined positive contact only reduces the cooperative behavior of boys ( M positive contact -M control condition =12.29, p<.05 ); (3) In the public goods dilemma, there was no significant effect of imagined intergroup contact on the cooperative behavior. These findings suggest that imagined intergroup contact has different effects on intergroup cooperation in different social situations. These results support that imagined positive intergroup contact can not only change the intergroup attitudes, but also affect the cooperative behavior in the process of real contact. Related Articles | Metrics

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Processing Bias towards Mass Media Information: the Moderating Effect of Ingroup and Outgroup Attributes 2022, 45(4): 934-941.  Abstract ( )   News coverage of current affairs is one of the most frequently received information from the external world. The individual allocates a large amount of attention resources on these information from mass media every day. What information individual attends to process affects his/her cognitive construction of the world, emotional states of mind and behavior responses, and even affects the social ethos at the group level. However, few studies have examined the bias in the processing of news coverage. Group membership is a vital factor affecting people’s bias. In the question of whether individual attention and processing on news information are in positivity bias or negativity bias, the group attribute of news is an important factor which is often ignored. Therefore, in this study, two experiments were conducted to investigate the attentional selection processing bias in news context, and to explore whether the bias is modified by the news attributes, and whether there are differences of bias in early and late attention stages. Experiment 1 was 2 ( group attribute of news : ingroup news / outgroup news ) × 2 ( valence of news : positive / negative ) within-subjects designed. In experiment 1, a total of 209 participants were recruited and attended the experiment through WenJunXing online. There were 10 news items for each condition. The participants were asked to choose one news item which they intended to read from 2 news items randomly paired ( two news items contained one positive news item and one negative news item, and two items had the same group attribute. In short, they were both ingroup news or outgroup news ). In this way, experiment 1 could indirectly investigate the attentional selection bias toward news information from the selective rate in behavioral level. Experiment 2 was 2 ( group attribute of news : ingroup news / outgroup news ) × 2 ( congruence: positive congruence / positive incongruence ) x 2 ( SOA: 200ms / 500ms ) within-subjects designed. In this study, 30 participants were recruited and attended the experiment in a laboratory. There were also 10 news items as experimental stimuli for each condition. Dot-probe paradigm was adopted to directly investigate the attentional bias of participants. A fitting test was used to analyze the difference of news selective rate in different conditions in experiment 1. Results of experiment 1 showed that, the participants were more likely to choose positive news among the ingroup news( p < .001 ), but more likely to choose negative news among the outgroup news ( p < .05 ). A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to analyze the respond time in different conditions in experiment 2. Results of experiment 2 showed that, for SOA = 200ms, the participants responded faster in the positive congruence condition than the positive incongruence condition for both ingroup and outgroup news ( p < .001 ). However, in SOA = 500ms condition, the participants responded faster in the positive congruence condition for ingroup news( p < .001 ), while responded faster in the positive incongruence condition for outgroup news ( p < .001 ). In this study, both experiment 1 with high ecological validity and experiment 2 with high internal validity found that there were a positive processing bias toward ingroup news and a negative processing bias toward outgroup news. These findings support the theory of social identity and the theory of social comparison, which declare ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation in individual’s processing bias. However, these biases existed only in the conscious selection behavior and the late stage of attention ( SOA = 500ms ) involving cognitive processing. In the early attention stage ( SOA = 200ms ), the participants showed positivity bias for both ingroup news and outgroup news. We can infer that positivity bias in the processing of news information can be expressed in the early stage of attention because the valence of news is involuntary processed. While in the conscious stages with cognitive resources involved, the bias can be cognitively adjusted by news group attributes according to social identity theory and social comparison theory. Related Articles | Metrics

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The neural mechanisms of third-party punishment decision-making differences between the gain and loss contexts: Evidence from rTMS 2022, 45(4): 942-952.  Abstract ( )   The development of human society is inseparable from social norms, and the altruistic punishment is the key to maintain social norms. As an altruistic behavior, third-party punishment can maintain social norms, which is of great significance in promoting fairness and cooperation among people in the society. Third-party punishment occurs when people implement sanctioning mechanisms as an impartial bystander, the so called “third-party” refers to people who are not directly affected by others’ unfair behaviors. Third-party punishment decision-makings are also influenced by contexts. For example, there are some differences between third-party punishment decision-makings to maintain social fairness in the gain and loss contexts. In the loss context, the third-party has more willings to punish the perpetrator who violated social fairness. neuroimaging studies have identified several brain regions which related to the differences between gain and loss contexts in second-party altruistic punishment but the neural mechanisms for the differences in third-party altruistic punishment remain unsolved. According to previous studies, vmPFC is an important part of the mentalized brain network, and vmPFC is a brain region associated with reward processing, it is also able to assess people's intention of violating norms, primarily, vmPFC is associated with integrated emotions in third-party punishment. In this study, we applied the low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to inhibit the function of bilateral ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and used the modified third-party punishment tasks to investigate the situations of third-party retributive punishment (Study 1) and the coexistence of third-party retributive punishment and third-party restorative punishment (Study 2) respectively. To further explore the role of vmPFC in third-party punishment decision-making, especially vmPFC in the differences of third-party punishment decision-making between the gain and loss contexts. The results of study 1 showed that, the function of the right vmPFC was inhibited by rTMS which accordingly reduced the third-party retributive punishment significantly in the loss context, but the same tendency did not found in the gain context, rTMS also inhibited the function of the left vmPFC, but the third-party retributive punishment decision-making did not make any changes in both the gain and loss contexts. In study 2, the results showed that the function of the right vmPFC was disrupted by rTMS which also reduced the third-party retributive punishment significantly in the loss context, but not in the gain context, specifically , the rate of third-party retributive punishment decreased more, and the rate of third-party restorative punishment wasunaffected . The brain function impairment of vmPFC significantly affected the third-party retributive punishment decision-makings for maintaining social fairness norms. Moreover, it was mainly caused by disrupting the function of right vmPFC, and the function of vmPFC also has the problem of lateralization in the third-party punishment decision-making. Summing up, this is the first study to provide the causal evidence that the vmPFC plays a pivotal role in modulating the differences between third-party punishment decision-making to maintain social fairness norms in the gain and loss contexts. Our results provide both theoretical and application values for the study of third-party punishment, and offer more supports for the research on the influence of contexts on people's altruistic punishment to maintain social fairness. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Social Power on the Fundamental Attribution Error 2022, 45(4): 953-959.  Abstract ( )   Social power is everywhere. It is not only the fundamental force in social relations but also one of the most fundamental concepts in social science. Attribution refers to how people provide a causal explanation by speculating on others’ behaviors and mental status. It is crucial to understanding and predicting the environment. As an important research topic of social cognition, the relationship between attribution and social power has attracted increasing attention in academia. However, as a fundamental force of social relations, how social power affects attribution errors remains to be studied. According to the dual-process model, there are two different processes. One is an automatic process that is fast, instinctive, and intuitive. People make judgments unconsciously, based on simple rules. The other process is the controlled process. This cognitive process is a relatively slow, sequential process that requires conscious effort. The theory of the two-step attribution process holds that the automatic process generates internal attribution, and only further, controlled processes can lead to external attribution. Enhancing social power results in automatic social cognition, and vice versa, leading to controlled social cognition. This assertion of the approach/inhibition theory of social power has been validated in several studies. So, social power may increase the tendency toward automatic processes, thus raising an underlying attribution error. We verified this theory using four studies. The first three studies use the sustainable traits of power. Study One used situational tasks to measure the fundamental attribution error; Study Two and Study Three adopted questionnaires to evaluate the tendency of internal and external attributions. Additionally, Study Two and Study Three set socioeconomic status as a control variable due to the association between socioeconomic status and social power. Study Four initiated high and low social power roles through priming experiments to examine the causal relationship between social power and internal/external attributions. All four studies have reached a consistent conclusion: social power increases the fundamental attribution error. There was a significant positive correlation between social power and attribution to high fuzzy events in Study One, but not in medium fuzzy situation or low fuzzy situation. In study Two, after variables such as gender and socioeconomic status were controlled for, social power remained a significant predictor of the wealth gap attribution: the higher the social power was, the more likely an internal attribution would be made to explain the wealth gap. This finding agreed with our research hypothesis. Study Three shows again that social power could positively predict the tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error.The effects of Study One and Study Four were different in high fuzzy situations. In Study One, the impact of the difference in the fundamental attribution error between the high and low social power groups was small. This effect, however, was moderate in Study Four. This discrepancy may be because Study One used a questionnaire with many confounding variables that were not well controlled. In contrast, Study Four was experimental research that was conducted with random grouping, and therefore, the confounding variables were better managed in the experiment. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of attribution inducements on aggression in different types of social exclusion hai-yan zhu 2022, 45(4): 960-965.  Abstract ( )   Social exclusion refers to the phenomenon or process that a person is excluded or rejected by a group or other people. It is a kind of negative interpersonal experience. Numerous studies have demonstrated that social exclusion can lead to aggressive behavior. Considering the negative effects of aggressive behavior, it is important to explore how to mitigate the aggression caused by social exclusion. Previous studies have found that attribution bias has a negative effect between social exclusion and aggressive behavior. People were more aggressive when they attributed social exclusion to other people's intentional actions. However, attribution, as a cognitive factor, can be interfered and induced. Some studies have indicated that attribution inducement can affect individual's emotions and behaviors, and promote the positive behavior change of individuals in subsequent tasks. But the field of social exclusion has not paid attention to the positive effects of attribution. Therefore, this study will explore whether positive attribution inducement can alleviate the aggression caused by social exclusion. In addition, there are many types of social exclusion, such as ostracism, rejection and neglect. Previous studies have shown that different types of social exclusion have different effects on individuals. So far, there are limited studies about the effect of different types of social exclusion on individual reaction. Past research has found that direct and indirect exclusion evoke different motivations, as well as threats to the different fundamental need of individuals. However, such studies have not explored whether different types of social exclusion cause different levels of aggression. It is still not clear whether the aggression caused by direct exclusion and indirect exclusion is different, and whether attribution inducement has the same effect on direct and indirect exclusion. In this study, rejection and ostracism were selected to represent direct exclusion and indirect exclusion, using 2(exclusion situation: rejection/ostracism, acceptance) × 3(attribution inducement: internal, external, control) two-factor between-subjects design to explore the above issues. Two experiments used network task paradigm and cyberball paradigm to initiate rejection and ostracism respectively. After that, participants were induced by different attributions through different experimental instruction. The last, the research assistant scoring paradigm was used to measure participant's aggression. The results were as follows: (1) Both rejection and ostracism cause aggression, but ostracism cause more aggressiveness that rejection. (2) Attribution inducement had a significant impact on the aggression caused by rejection. After internal attribution inducement of rejected persons, its aggressiveness is significantly lower than the external attribution inducement group and non-attribution inducement group. (3) There was no significant effect of attribution inducement on aggression caused by ostracism. In summary, the results of this study indicate that attributional inducement has different effects on aggression caused by direct and indirect exclusion. Attributional induction can alleviate the aggression caused by rejection-type direct exclusion, but it fails to alleviate the aggression caused by ostracism-type indirect exclusion. It may be related to the aggression caused by ostracism-type indirect exclusion is stronger than that caused by rejection-type direct exclusion. This study provides some evidences for different types of social exclusion need different alleviate ways. Related Articles | Metrics

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Career Compromise : Definition, Antecedents and Consequences 2022, 45(4): 966-972.  Abstract ( )   With the increasing competition in the labour market, the characteristics of the attainable occupational alternatives do not necessarily match the individual's image of an ideal career, so individuals are required to make compromises in their career choices. Career compromise is very important for individuals to realize their career development and decrease the pressure of social employment. However, there is a lack of a systematic overview of the study of career compromise. It is necessary to summary and prospect the existing researches for the effectiveness of occupational intervention and the improvement of employment rate. The current research on career compromise is mainly based on the concept of career compromise of Gottfredson and Gati, definition on career compromise of Gottfredson is mainly based on the circumscription and compromise theory, and Gati’s is mainly based on the decision theory. There are several differences between the two concepts of career compromise in the dimension of compromise, the basis of decision-making and the continuity of theoretical basis. At present, methods to measure career compromise could be divided into two types, questionnaire method and experimental method. Scales include single dimension scale and multi dimension scale. In addition, because of the diversity and complexity of the content of career compromise, scholars have different treatment of the measured data, for example fuzzy method and multi-attribute method. The influencing factors of career compromise are divided into three aspects. The first is the Gottfredson's order of compromise on career interest, social prestige and sex type. Secondly, the influence of individual's own and external factors on compromise. Individual influence factors inlude single factor effect (i.e, family obligations) and multi factors’ interaction effect (i.e, environment conditions and interest). Third, some external factors such as Industry tradition and friendship also have an impact on career compromise. Several studies have investigated the consequence of career compromise. Specially, career compromise has been found to facilitate individual’s negative affect, goal disengagement and reengagement behaviors and job burnout; and it could depress individual’s positive affect, work-related satisfaction, perceived employability, well-being and occupational commitment. Further, discrepancy theory, goal setting theory, social cognitive theory and person-environment theory provided the theoretical explanation for the underlying mechanism of the career compromise outcome relation. For example, discrepancy theory was used to explain the relationship between career compromise and affect, goal setting theory was used to explain the relationship between career compromise and perceived employability, social cognitive theory was used to explain the relationship between career compromise and career behaviors, person-environment theory was used to explain the relationship between career compromise and job burnout. In addtion, there are some boundary conditions from self and external will influnce the effect of career compromise to consequence(i.e, social capital). Finally, we demonstrate three directions for future research, First, future research could integrate the different path between career compromise and career behaviors, and reveal the mixed effects of them. Second, with the rapid development of information technology, people's career attitude has changed dramatically. So, in the future research, the boundarylessness career attitude can be considered as the boundary condition. Third, family and organization environment are all important environments for the development of individual’s self-concept, future research could explore the influence of intergenerational support and leader-follower fit on career compromise. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Several Factors on IRT Observed Score Kernel Equating 2022, 45(4): 988-997.  Abstract ( )   Attributing to its advantages of pre-smoothing and continuization of score distributions, kernel equating has been testified and shown equivalent to or better than other equating methods, especially traditional ones, in the aspect of equating accuracy and stability. IRT observed score kernel equating is formed by integrating kernel equating and IRT observed score equating. Few researches have focused on evaluating its performance systematically. Therefore, bandwidth selection method, sample size, test length, equating design, and data simulation methods were investigated about their influence on it. To ensure ecological validity, data from a large-scale assessment were used as the sampling pool. IRT data simulation method and pseudo tests and pseudo groups simulation method were used to avoid the simulation preference in random Equivalent Groups design (EG) and Non-Equivalent groups with Anchor Test design (NEAT). In detail, bandwidth selection methods included Penalty method, Silverman’s rule of thumb method, and Double smoothing method. Levels of sample size were 1000, 2000, and 5000. Meanwhile, test containing 30 items and 45 items were considered. Finally, local criteria and universal criteria were computed, the former of which were Percent Relative Error (PRE) and Standard Error of Equating (SEE), and the latter of which were Averaged Percent Relative Error (APRE) and Averaged Standard Error of Equating (ASEE). It was found out that in EG, regarding local criteria, PRE increased as central moment became higher, which also meant that the distribution difference before and after equating was enlarged. Nonetheless, considering that PRE was formed by multiplying initial difference with 100, bandwidth selection methods performed alike. On the other hand, PRE was significantly reduced by increasing sample size and lengthening tests, especially by the latter one. Similar to PRE, when it came to SEE, there was no difference between effect of bandwidth selection methods. Larger sample size rendered less random error, which was contrary to test length. Furthermore, curves of SEE were “high at left but low at right” for pseudo tests and pseudo groups method, and “low at left but high at right” for IRT simulation method. As for universal criteria, APRE among bandwidth selection methods were alike, which were all small. Effects of sample size and test length were same as observed in local criteria. There was no significant difference between ASEE for two data simulation methods. In NEAT, regarding local criteria, PRE increased as central moment became higher. The results of Penalty method and Silverman’s rule of thumb method coincided, which were superior to others. And this trend was more evident when test is shorter. PRE was significantly reduced by lengthening tests as in EG, but not by increasing sample size. To be mentioned was the results that PRE for Double smoothing method was most influenced by sample size when test included 30 items and IRT simulation method was used, which indicated some interactions among them. When it came to SEE, bandwidth selection methods performed alike, only showing discrepancies at extreme scores. Increasing sample size and lengthening test could reduce random error. Meanwhile, distribution of SEE for pseudo tests and pseudo groups method was more stable than that for IRT method. As for universal criteria, the trends for APRE and ASEE were same as those in local criteria. To summarize, performances of bandwidth selection methods were similar in EG, but Penalty method and Silverman’s rule of thumb method prevailed in NEAT. Bandwidth selection, sample size, and test length affected IRT observed score equating together. Preference of data simulation methods was spotted, which suggested researchers that multiple simulation methods and designs should be conducted before final conclusions are drawn in the field of comparison of equating method. Further study should focus more on the systematic evaluation of equating. Related Articles | Metrics

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DIF Detection Methods and Its Application of Polytomously Scored Items under the Framework of Cognitive Diagnosis 2022, 45(4): 998-1007.  Abstract ( )   Currently, polytomous cognitive diagnosis test has attracted more and more researchers’ attention because it combines the advantages of polytomous items that can provide researchers with more information and the characteristics of cognitive diagnostic tests that can reflect the participants' inherent knowledge structure. However, some basic problems like differential item functioning (DIF) have not been solved, which greatly limits the practical application of the polytomous cognitive diagnosis test. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to introduce several commonly used polytomous DIF detection procedures into polytomous cognitive diagnostic test to fill the gaps in this field. Firstly, the concept of DIF in the field of polytomous cognitive diagnosis test was defined and four DIF detection procedures include the mantel test, the logistic discriminant function analysis (LDFA), the likelihood ratio test (LR test), and Wald test were extended to polytomous cognitive diagnosis. Then simulation experiment was explored to investigate the performance of these polytomous DIF detection procedures in indetecting the uniform DIF under the estimation of four reduced models of seq-DINA, seq-DINO, seq-ACDM, seq-RRUM and a saturation model of seq-GDINA. In addition to the differences in the estimation model, some independent variables also included in the simulation experiment like dif size, sample size, matching variables, and the proportion of DIF items. Two levels of DIF size were .05 and .1. Two levels of sample size were 500 and 1000 examinees per group. Two levels of matching variables mainly for LDFA and the mantel test method were with KS as the matching variable and with the total score as the matching variable. Three levels of the proportion of DIF items were 10%, 20% and 30%. Finally, an empirical study was implemented to show the practical application of each method. The results are as follows: 1) Whether in the reduced model or the saturated model, each DIF detection procedures all can effectively detect the uniform DIF in the polytomous cognitive diagnostic tests, and the performance of each procedure is minimally affected by the model. 2) Two model-based DIF tests: Wald test and LR test have better Type I error control than two non-model-based DIF tests: LDFA method and the mantel test method. And within all methods, Wald test has the best Type I error control. 3) There are two matching variables for LDFA and the mantel test method. The mantel test and LDFA method with KS as the matching variable have higher power and lower type I error than the total score. 4) Among the other experimental conditions, DIF size has the greatest influence on the performance of DIF detection, followed by the size of the group, and finally the proportion of DIF items. From the method point of view, the mantel test method and LDFA method with total score as the matching variable are most affected by the changes of experimental conditions, while the other methods are less affected by the changes of experimental conditions. All in all, this article provided a preliminary definition of DIF in the field of polytomous cognitive diagnosis test, and extended four common used polytomous DIF detection procedures to the field of polytomous cognitive diagnosis. But, research of DIF in the field of polytomous cognitive diagnosis test is still insufficient, it is still needed for more in-depth research. Related Articles | Metrics

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Abnormal Feedback Processing of Heroin Abstainers on Monetary Rewards: Evidence from ERP 2022, 45(4): 1008-1016.  Abstract ( )   In this study, the monetary reward delay task was used to investigate the expectation and feedback processing and electrophysiological mechanism of heroin abstainers on monetary reward and loss. Twenty-four male heroin abstainers were selected from a compulsory isolation drug rehabilitation institute, they were assessed by professional doctors in drug rehabilitation institute to meet DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for opioid dependence. Twenty-four adult male participants were recruited. After statistical test, there was no significant difference in age and years of education between the two groups. In addition, all participants had normal vision or corrected vision, and had no history of mental illness or other serious diseases. The experimental process was as follows: firstly, the fixation mark of 1000 ms was presented on the computer screen, and then the clues of 400 ms (52 reward clues trials, 52 loss clues trials and 26 neutral clues trials were presented randomly), then the fixation mark of 2000~2500 ms was presented, and then the white square stimulation of 300 ms was presented (When the stimulus appears, the participants need to press the J key quickly and accurately. The responses made by the participants between the appearance and disappearance of the white square stimulus were correct responses, and the responses made before or after the appearance of the white square stimulus were all wrong responses. In order to keep the overall accuracy of the subjects at about 50%, the presentation time of the white square was adjusted with the task performance of participants. The presentation time of the white square in the next trial was reduced by 10 ms when the participants reacts correctly, and the reaction error was increased by 10 ms). Then 1300 ms fixation mark was presented, and finally 2000 ms feedback was presented. The results showed that there was no significant difference in P3 amplitude induced by different cues between the two groups in the expected stage. During the feedback stage of money reward, the RewP amplitude induced by money gain condition in heroin abstainers group was significantly smaller than that in control group, but there was no significant difference between the two groups under the condition of no gain and no loss. In addition, there was no significant difference between the P3 amplitude induced by money gain condition and the P3 amplitude induced by no gain and no loss condition in heroin abstainers group, while the P3 amplitude induced by money gain condition was significantly larger than that induced by no gain and no loss condition in control group. In the feedback stage of money loss processing, there was no significant difference in RewP amplitude between the two groups, and P3 amplitude induced by money loss condition was significantly larger than P3 amplitude induced by no income and no loss condition. The above results indicated that the heroin abstainers' feedback processing of money reward was abnormal, which was manifested in the decrease of their sensitivity to money reward or the decrease of their motivation to approach money reward. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of social participation on the attitudes to aging of rural elderly: mediating effects of self-efficacy and loneliness 2022, 45(4): 863-870.  Abstract ( )   Objective: With the increasing degree of aging in rural areas, how to realize their own value and improve the quality of life has become the focus of the current research on aging theory and the promotion of pension work. From the perspective of positive aging, the study was carried out to explored the effect of social participation on the attitudes to aging and the role of self-efficacy and loneliness in the relationship between social participation and the attitudes to aging of rural elderly. Method: The Social Participate scale, Attitudes to aging questionnaire, the short-form of UCLA Loneliness Scale and General Self-Efficacy Scale were used as measured tools among 170 rural elderly by way of household survey in Kaifeng, Henan Province. After data acquisition, the statistic processing and analysis were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistic 20 software. Specifically, the independent-sample t-test and one-way ANOVA were performed to investigate whether the variables (e.g social participation, self-efficacy, loneliness and aging attitude) are differentiate by demographic information. Subsequently, the Pearson correlation analysis and multi-layer regression analysis were used to test whether the variables are correlated. Further, then SPSS Process v2.16.3 was used for mediation model analysis to explore the associations between these variables. Data analysis results p <.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The results showed that the social participation, self-efficacy, loneliness and aging attitude of the rural elderly differentiate regard to demographic information such as gender, age, marital status, education and economic income, respectively. And then, the score of loneliness was negatively correlated with social participation (r = -0.50, p < 0.001) , self-efficacy (r = -0.54, p < 0.001) , and both the total score and dimension scores of aging attitude (p s < 0.001); the self-efficacy and social participation had significantly positive correlation with the total score and dimension scores of aging attitude (p s < 0.001). The mediation effect analysis result showed that social participation had a positive role in promoting the attitudes to aging (B = 0.94，SE = 0.14，p < 0.001) . The relationship between social participation and the attitudes to aging was partly mediated by self-efficacy (B = 0.40, SE = 0.09, 95%CI [0.24，0.60]), loneliness (B = 0.27, SE = 0.09, 95%CI [0.12，0.49]) and the chain intermediary effect of self-efficacy and loneliness (B = 0.15, SE = 0.04, 95%CI [0.08，0.26]). Discussion & Conclusion: Social participation can enable individuals to gain identity as a member of a social group, which will provide individuals with social resources and emotional support, and directly or indirectly affect their values, emotions, and healthy behaviors. Therefore, increasing the active social participation of the elderly in rural areas can help to enrich their daily life, enhance their sense of control over the aging process, and maintain the healthy operation of the social support network. Consequently, it contributes to improve the cognition of the elderly to a certain extent, reduce negative emotions, advance the life quality and promote successful aging. The result can provide psychological basis and support for the improvement of the mental health of the rural elderly and the improvement of the pension and social security systems, to a certain extent. Related Articles | Metrics

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Development of metonymy processing in children with high functioning autism: Evidence from ERPs（resubmit） 2022, 45(4): 871-878.  Abstract ( )   Metonymy processing ability is an important pragmatic skill. The cognitive abbreviation of metonymy greatly facilitates communication, and is a common way of communication for typically developing (TD) individuals in daily life. Studies have found that children's metonymy processing ability will keep improving with age. Children with high functioning autism (HFA) are obviously inadequate in comprehension of metaphorical language. Will they improve their metonymy processing ability with age like TD children, whether the development of conventional metonymy and novel metonymy is the same, and whether the neural mechanism of their processing metonymy is different from that of children with TD has not been explored. This study used event-related potential technology to explore the cognitive processing mechanism and developmental trajectory of conventional and novel metonymy in children with HFA aged 6~11 years. The experiment selected 30 HFA children aged 6~11 years old, of which 15 were 6~8 years old and 15 were 9~11 years old. The same was done for the control group. The four groups of children's age and Webster's intelligence scores for children all have a statistically good match. The materials were divided into 4 categories: conventional metonymy, novel metonymy, literal sentences, and error sentences, each with 32 sentences. The materials were presented on a computer in 3 screens of subject-verb-object, and EEG signals during the experiment were collected. The ERP results showed that: both 6~8 years old and 9~11 years old HFA children’s N400 amplitudes of conventional metonymy and novel metonymy were lower than that of TD children of the same age, this suggests that HFA children have more difficulty in processing metonymy than TD children of the same age. There was no significant difference in the N400 amplitudes of conventional metonymy and novel metonymy between HFA children aged 6~8, the N400 amplitudes of conventional metonymy and novel metonymy were not significantly different from the error sentences. 9~11 years old HFA children's N400 amplitudes of novel metonymy were less than conventional metonymy, there is a conventional degree effect, which suggests that HFA children of this age have been able to recognize the difference between conventional and novel metonymy. The N400 difference amplitudes of HFA children aged 6~8 years for conventional metonymy were less than that of HFA children aged 9~11 years, there was no significant difference for novel metonymy. This shows that from 6 to 11 years old, 9~11 years old HFA children are easier to process conventional metonymy than 6~8 years old. For novel metonymy, 9~11 years old is as difficult as 6~8 years old. The present study suggests that HFA children's processing of conventional and novel metonymy lagged behind that of TD children overall. Although both conventional and novel metonymy processing was poor in HFA children aged 6~8 years, conventional metonymy processing improved in HFA children aged 9~11 years, while novel metonymy processing remained poor. From 6~11 years old, HFA children's conventional metonymy processing improved significantly with age, while novel metonymy did not show significant improvement, and the processing of novel metonymy was particularly difficult compared to conventional metonymy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Instructors’ Humor and College Students’ Academic Engagement in Online Learning: A Multilevel Analysis 2022, 45(4): 879-887.  Abstract ( )   Instructors humor is one of the effective teaching strategies. Using humor helps instructors to create a relaxing and interesting online learning climate, keep positive instructor-student relationships, and attract students to learn. In the past few decades, a plethora of empirical research has shown that humor was related to students’ academic engagement in online environment. Notably, there were several limits. First, instructor humor is a multidimensional concept, however, little is know about how different styles of humor have effects on academic engagement systematically. In addition, existing studies primarily focused on the single perspective, instructors’ perspectives (instructor humor) or students’ perspectives (perceiving instructor humor), which ignores the transmission effect of humor and the possibility of major changes in humor at the class level. Third, although instructional humor processing theory could effectively explain how instructor humor affect learning, empirical evidence still remains scarce. To address those gaps, the present studies aimed to investigate the relationships between different styles of instructors humor on students’ online academic engagement and its underlying mechanism from the individual level and the class level. One thousand eight hundred and twenty-nine college students and forty nine instructors were recruited from 22 universities of 9 provinces in China. All participants voluntarily and anonymously completed perceiving instructors humor, instructors humor, academic emotion and academic engagement scales. Meanwhile, at class level, instructors’ age, gender, seniority and size of class were collected. Students’ demographic information including gender and age were obtained. The ICCS of academic engagement at class level was .89. In addition, the present study conducted a multilevel structural equation analysis to simultaneously estimate direct and indirect effects in the case of clustered data. The results revealed that: (1) Instructors humor at class level was unrelated to students academic engagement in online learning. (2) At individual level, perceiving humor related to course content was significantly related to academic engagement, while perceiving unrelated to course content, self-disparaging and aggressive humor were irrelevant to academic engagement. (3) Academic emotion can not mediate the relationship between different styles of instructor humor and students academic engagement. (4) Positive and negative emotion had mediating effects between perceiving related to course content, unrelated to course content, aggressive humor and academic engagement. While, perceiving self-disparaging humor could affect academic engagement through negative emotion. Compared to previous research, this study further explores how different styles of humor have an influence on academic engagement in online learning. Moreover, the current study conducts a multilevel model and analyzes effects of humor from individual level and class level, which contributes to have a comprehensive understanding of how instructors’ humor facilitates academic engagement. Additionally, the present study provides empirical evidence for instructor humor processing theory and examines the mediating role of academic emotion. In practice, instructors should generate humor related to course content from students’ perspectives, and avoid unrelated to course humor, self-disparaging and aggressive humor as possible as they could. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Reading Mode and Learning Frequency on Production Effect of Chinese Written Word: A Development Study 2022, 45(4): 896-902.  Abstract ( )   Production effect refers to the typical finding that words learned by reading aloud are better remembered than those learned silently. Currently, there are two theoretical explanations to account for the production effect, namely, the distinctiveness account and the strength account. According to the distinctiveness account, words being read aloud are particularly distinctive compared to words being read silently, pronunciation improves memory. However, strength account claims that the production effect is due to the difference of coding strength, coding strength is simply greater for words being read aloud. Previous studies of production effect mainly focused on a specific group, lack exploration of effect changing from the perspective of development. In the present study, we aimed to test the two theoretical explanations and further explored the development characteristics of the production effect of Chinese written word. One hundred and ninety-two participants with normal reading ability participated in the experiment, of which 40 are in grade three, 39 in grade five, 37 in grade seven, 36 in grade eight, and 40 in college. We investigated the influence of reading mode and learning frequency on the production effect using the learning-testing (corresponding to encoding and recognition, respectively) paradigm. Therefore, the present study was a 2 (reading mode: loud reading, silent reading) ×2 (learning frequency: one time, three times) ×5 (grade: grade three, grade five, grade seven, grade eight, college students) mixed design, and the dependent variable was the memory performance. According to the distinctiveness account, learning frequency should not influence the production effect, whereas the strength account predicts that the production effect should increase when learning frequency increase. The results showed that: (a) Main effect of grade occurred, with the memory performance of college students was significantly better than that of students in grade three, grade five, and grade seven; the memory performance of grade five, grade seven, and grade eight was significantly better than that of grade three. (b) The main effect of reading mode was significant, with the memory performance of reading aloud being significantly better than that of silent reading. (c) The main effect of learning frequency was also significant, with the memory performance of learning three times being significantly better than that of learning only once. (d) The interaction between grade and reading mode was significant. Further analysis showed that the memory performance of college students was significantly better than that of grade three in the loud reading memory, but not better than that of grade five, which indicated that the memory of loud reading tends to be mature in grade five; the memory performance of college students was significantly better than that of grade three, grade five and grade seven in the silent reading memory, but not significantly better than that of grade eight, which indicated that the memory of silent reading tends to be mature in grade eight. The difference in the production effect between grade seven and college students was not significant. The interaction between grade, reading mode and learning frequency was not significant, which supported the distinctiveness account. Related Articles | Metrics

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Debates and Integration of Bilinguals’ Cross-Language Orthographic Transfer Jiushu XIE Guang-Yin SHEN Huang YanLi 2022, 45(4): 903-909.  Abstract ( )   Bilinguals transfer orthographic processing skills from one language to another language, i.e., cross-language orthographic transfer. Previous studies showed that orthographic transfer significantly improves bilinguals’ reading performance. However, the specific orthography hypothesis and the conditional transfer hypothesis hold opposite points on bilinguals’ cross-language orthographic transfer. The former holds that orthography is specific for each language and orthographic processing skills cannot be transferred. On the contrary, the latter holds that when the writing systems are sufficiently related, orthographic processing skills can be transferred. To partially deal with this debate, the present paper innovatively proposed the role of the language system in the cross-language orthographic transfer. Specifically, alphabetical languages use graphemes to represent phonemes, whereas logographic languages use logograms to represent morphemes. Writing systems of alphabetical and logographic languages are distinct. However, previous studies did not consider it. This may cloud previous findings. To fill in this gap, the present study summarized previous findings according to language systems. Studies on alphabetical languages showed mixed results. Some studies did not reveal cross-language orthographic transfer, supporting the specific orthography hypothesis. Whereas other studies showed cross-language orthographic transfer both from the first language to the second language and vice versa, supporting the conditional transfer hypothesis. In contrast, cross-language orthographic transfer was not found between alphabetical and logographic languages, supporting the specific orthography hypothesis. Previous studies on knowledge transfer pointed out that the overlap between the original domain and the novel domain is critical for knowledge transfer. Inspired by this point, the present paper proposes an overlap hypothesis. These overlaps indicate that these languages share similar orthographies and their writing systems have similar relationships with phones and semantics. The degree of overlap determines the extent of cross-language orthographic transfers. This hypothesis can help interpret the debates of previous studies. As alphabetical and logographic languages have distinct writing systems, they have few overlaps, which resulted in the limited cross-language orthographic transfer. However, if two alphabetical or logographic languages have enough overlaps, cross-language orthographic transfers may appear. The overlap hypothesis also can predict the direction of orthographic transfer. When the first language has simple orthographies while the second language has complex orthographies, a cross-language orthographic transfer would appear from the first language to the second language, but not vice versa. This direction depends on the percentage of the overlap in one language’s orthographies. Future studies may focus on the following directions. First, future studies should investigate the cross-language orthographic transfer in logographic languages. Second, previous studies use different measurements for cross-language orthographic transfer. These divergent measurements may cloud previous findings. Third, the results of the cross-language orthographic transfer in adults and children are mixed. Fourth, neuroimaging methods are suggested to use to test the time course and neural underpinnings of the cross-language orthographic transfer in future studies. In summary, the present paper comprehensively reviewed the findings of bilinguals’ cross-language orthographic transfer and theoretically proposed a tentative solution for these debates. These would provide a new view for understanding the cross-language orthographic transfer and a potential solution to integrate some theoretical debates. Related Articles | Metrics