3~6岁ASD儿童基于事件前瞻记忆的损伤：执行功能的作用

doi:10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240308

摘要/Abstract

摘要： 为了解3~6岁自闭症儿童基于事件前瞻记忆能力的发展特点和损伤机制,本研究采用实验室前瞻记忆范式,比较了自闭症儿童与正常儿童基于事件的前瞻记忆和执行功能表现。结果显示,相比于正常儿童,自闭症儿童基于事件前瞻记忆表现存在明显缺陷。而且,自闭症儿童基于事件的前瞻记忆受损与其执行功能障碍有相关,自闭症儿童抑制控制能力的发展显著预测其基于事件的前瞻记忆能力。

关键词: 自闭症谱系障碍, 基于事件的前瞻记忆, 执行功能, 抑制控制

Abstract: Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember the planned intention or behavior at an appropriate time or situation in the future. A growing body of research has investigated the event-based prospective memory (PM) in typically developing children but research on children with autistic spectrum disorders is limited. The inconsistent findings in studies on event-based prospective memory ability in populations with autistic spectrum disorders and the lack of empirical evidence from preschoolers, have also limited the understanding of the characteristics of prospective memory in children with autistic spectrum disorder. Besides, executive function plays an important role in prospective memory and dysfunctional executive function underlies the core symptoms of autism spectrum disorders. Given the weight of evidence demonstrating autistic impairment in such processes, and the potentially debilitating PM failures this may lead to, it is vital to better understand the characteristics of prospective memory impairment in children with autistic spectrum disorders.<br/>The present study investigated the developmental characteristics of event-based prospective memory in children with autism spectrum disorders aged 3~6 years and explored the potential impairment and mechanisms. Participants included 27 children with autism spectrum disorder age 3~6 and 30 matched typically developing children. All participants completed an event-based prospective memory embedded in a living task (an ongoing task) and were required to classify the pictures presented on the screen according to the principle of living or non-living. Meanwhile, a series of executive function tasks were also assessed to measure the abilities of working memory updating (the N-back Task), inhibitory control (the Go/No-go task), and cognitive flexibility (the Dimensional Change Card Sorting Task) in both autistic and typically developing children. First, results revealed that the performance of event-based prospective memory in children with autism spectrum disorder was significantly lower than that in typically developing children. That is, the impaired event-based prospective memory ability was found in 3- to 6-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder. Moreover, the impaired executive functions were also found in the children with autism spectrum disorder and the development of various components of executive function was closely related to the development of prospective memory in children with autism spectrum disorder. These have shown that event-based prospective memory deficits in children with autism spectrum disorder were accompanied by the impairment of executive function. Importantly, stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that inhibition control performance of autistic children could significantly predict prospective memory performance, rather than the updating or cognitive flexibility components in executive function. But the performance of prospective memory in typically developing children could not be predicted by inhibition control. <br/>To conclude, the patterns of results indicated that executive function, especially inhibitory control, played an important role in the event-based prospective memory deficits of children with autism spectrum disorder aged 3~6. These findings supported the multiprocess framework of prospective memory and provided empirical evidence for the executive function framework theory of prospective memory from a clinical perspective.

Key words: autism spectrum disorder, event-based prospective memory, executive function, inhibitory control

任智, 孙凡惠, 远洋, 宋佳润, 王丽娟. 3~6岁ASD儿童基于事件前瞻记忆的损伤：执行功能的作用[J]. 心理科学, 2024, 47(3): 570-580.

Ren Zhi, Sun Fanhui, Yuan Yang, Song Jiarun, Wang Lijuan. The Event-Based Prospective Memory Impairment in Children with ASD Aged 3-6: The Role of Executive Function[J]. Journal of Psychological Science, 2024, 47(3): 570-580.

参考文献

[1] 李毓秋, 朱建军. (2014). 韦氏幼儿智力量表第四版(WPPSI-IV)中文版. 京美心理测量技术开发有限公司.
[2] Altemeier L. E., Abbott R. D., & Berninger V. W. (2008). Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30(5), 588-606.
[3] Altgassen M., Koban N., & Kliegel M. (2012). Do adults with autism spectrum disorders compensate in naturalistic prospective memory tasks? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(10), 2141-2151.
[4] Altgassen, M., & Koch, A. (2014). Impact of inhibitory load on remembering delayed intentions in autism. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 60(3), 198-204.
[5] Altgassen M., Kretschmer A., & Schnitzspahn K. M. (2017). Future thinking instructions improve prospective memory performance in adolescents. Child Neuropsychology, 23(5), 536-553.
[6] Altgassen M., Schmitz-Hübsch M., & Kliegel M. (2010). Event-based prospective memory performance in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2(1), 2-8.
[7] Altgassen M., Sheppard D. P., & Hendriks, M. P. H. (2019). Do importance instructions improve time-based prospective remembering in autism spectrum conditions? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 90, 1-13.
[8] Altgassen M., Williams T. I., Bölte S., & Kliegel M. (2009). Time-based prospective memory in children with autism spectrum disorder. Brain Impairment, 10(1), 52-58.
[9] American Psychiatric Association.(2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Publishing..
[10] Anderson P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71-82.
[11] Anderson V., Jacobs R. K., & Anderson P. J. (2008). Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A lifespan perspective. Taylor & Francis.
[12] Atance, C. M., & Jackson, L. K. (2009). The development and coherence of future-oriented behaviors during the preschool years. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(4), 379-391.
[13] Berenguer C., Roselló B., Colomer C., Baixauli I., & Miranda A. (2018). Children with autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Relationships between symptoms and executive function, theory of mind, and behavioral problems. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 83, 260-269.
[14] Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81(6), 1641-1660.
[15] Best J. R., Miller P. H., & Naglieri J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21(4), 327-336.
[16] Brandimonte M. A., Filippello P., Coluccia E., Altgassen M., & Kliegel M. (2011). To do or not to do? Prospective memory versus response inhibition in autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Memory, 19(1), 56-66.
[17] Brodeur M. B., Dionne-Dostie E., Montreuil T., & Lepage M. (2010). The bank of standardized stimuli (BOSS), a new set of 480 normative photos of objects to be used as visual stimuli in cognitive research. PLoS ONE, 5(5), e10773.
[18] Burgess P. W., Alderman N., Volle E., Benoit R. G., & Gilbert S. J. (2009). Mesulam's frontal lobe mystery re-examined. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27(5), 493-506.
[19] Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children' s theory of mind. Child Development, 72(4), 1032-1053.
[20] Cui J. F., Gao D. G., Chen Y. H., Zou X. B., & Wang Y. (2010). Working memory in early-school-age children with Asperger' s syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(8), 958-967.
[21] Demetriou E. A., Lampit A., Quintana D. S., Naismith S. L., Song Y. J. C., Pye J. E., Hickie I., & Guastella A. J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of executive function. Molecular Psychiatry, 23(5), 1198-1204.
[22] Desaunay P., Postel C., Bensaber F., Gonneaud J., Baleyte J. M., Anger M., Guénolé F., Malvy J., Bonnet-Brilhault F., Eustache F., Desgranges B., & Guillery-Girard B. (2019). Prospective memory in adolescents with autism: A preliminary study of the impact of memory load. Developmental Neuropsychology, 44(8), 543-553.
[23] Diamond, A. (2002). Normal development of prefrontal cortex from birth to young adulthood: Cognitive functions, anatomy, and biochemistry. In D. T. Stuss & R. T. Knight (Eds.), Principles of frontal lobe function (pp. 466-503). Oxford University Press.
[24] Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168.
[25] Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (1990). Normal aging and prospective memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16(4), 717-726.
[26] Einstein, G. O., & McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Prospective memory: Multiple retrieval processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(6), 286-290.
[27] Filipe M. G., Frota S., & Vicente S. G. (2018). Executive functions and prosodic abilities in children with high-functioning autism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 359.
[28] Ford R. M., Driscoll T., Shum D., & Macaulay C. E. (2012). Executive and theory-of-mind contributions to event-based prospective memory in children: Exploring the self-projection hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 111(3), 468-489.
[29] Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186-204.
[30] Geurts H. M., van den Bergh, S. F. W. M., & Ruzzano L. (2014). Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: Two meta-analyses. Autism Research, 7(4), 407-420.
[31] Henry J. D., Terrett G., Altgassen M., Raponi-Saunders S., Ballhausen N., Schnitzspahn K. M., & Rendell P. G. (2014). A virtual week study of prospective memory function in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 127, 110-125.
[32] Hering A., Wild-Wall N., Gajewski P. D., Falkenstein M., Kliegel M., & Zinke K. (2016). The role of cue detection for prospective memory development across the lifespan. Neuropsychologia, 93, 289-300.
[33] Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8(1), 26-32.
[34] Jones C. R. G., Happé F., Pickles A., Marsden A. J. S., Tregay J., Baird G., Simonoff E., & Charman T. (2011). ‘Everyday memory' impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(4), 455-464.
[35] Kenworthy L., Yerys B. E., Anthony L. G., & Wallace G. L. (2008). Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world. Neuropsychology Review, 18(4), 320-338.
[36] Kimhi Y., Shoam-Kugelmas D., Agam Ben-Artzi G., Ben-Moshe I., & Bauminger-Zviely N. (2014). Theory of mind and executive function in preschoolers with typical development versus intellectually able preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(9), 2341-2354.
[37] Kliegel, M., & Jäger, T. (2007). The effects of age and cue-action reminders on event-based prospective memory performance in preschoolers. Cognitive Development, 22(1), 33-46.
[38] Kliegel M., Mackinlay R., & Jäger T. (2008). Complex prospective memory: Development across the lifespan and the role of task interruption. Developmental Psychology, 44(2), 612-617.
[39] Kliegel M., Martin M., McDaniel M. A., & Einstein G. O. (2002). Complex prospective memory and executive control of working memory: A process model. Psychologische Beiträge, 44(2), 303-318.
[40] Kouklari E. C., Tsermentseli S., & Auyeung B. (2018). Executive function predicts theory of mind but not social verbal communication in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 76, 12-24.
[41] Kretschmer A., Altgassen M., Rendell P. G., & Bölte S. (2014). Prospective memory in adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders: Exploring effects of implementation intentions and retrospective memory load. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(11), 3108-3118.
[42] Kretschmer-Trendowicz, A., & Altgassen, M. (2016). Event-based prospective memory across the lifespan: Do all age groups benefit from salient prospective memory cues? Cognitive Development, 39, 103-112.
[43] Kvavilashvili L., Kyle F. E., & Messer D. J. (2008). The development of prospective memory in children: Methodological issues, empirical findings, and future directions. In M. Kliegel, M. A. McDaniel, & G. O. Einstein (Eds.), Prospective memory: Cognitive, neuroscience, developmental, and applied perspectives (pp. 115-140). Lawrence Erlbaum Mahwah.
[44] Lai C. L. E., Lau Z., Lui S. S. Y., Lok E., Tam V., Chan Q., Cheng K. M., Lam S. M., & Cheung, E. F. C. (2017). Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 10(5), 911-939.
[45] Landsiedel, J., & Williams, D. M. (2020). Increasing extrinsic motivation improves time-based prospective memory in adults with autism: Relations with executive functioning and mentalizing. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(4), 1133-1146.
[46] Lee K., Bull R., & Ho, R. M. H. (2013). Developmental changes in executive functioning. Child Development, 84(6), 1933-1953.
[47] Leung, R. C., & Zakzanis, K. K. (2014). Brief report: Cognitive flexibility in autism spectrum disorders: A quantitative review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(10), 2628-2645.
[48] Lind S. E., Williams D. M., Bowler D. M., & Peel A. (2014). Episodic memory and episodic future thinking impairments in high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: An underlying difficulty with scene construction or self-projection? Neuropsychology, 28(1), 55-67.
[49] Luna B., Doll S. K., Hegedus S. J., Minshew N. J., & Sweeney J. A. (2007). Maturation of executive function in autism. Biological Psychiatry, 61(4), 474-481.
[50] Mackinlay R. J., Kliegel M., & Mäntylä T. (2009). Predictors of time-based prospective memory in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102(3), 251-264.
[51] Maenner M. J., Shaw K. A., Baio J., Washington A., Patrick M., DiRienzo M., Christensen D. L., Wiggins L. D., Pettygrove S., Andrews J. G., Lopez M., Hudson A., Baroud T., Schwenk Y., White T., Rosenberg C. R., Lee L. C., Harrington R. A., Huston M., & Dietz P. M. (2020). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years - Autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2016. Surveillance Summaries, 69(4), 1-12.
[52] Mahy, C. E. V., & Moses, L. J. (2011). Executive functioning and prospective memory in young children. Cognitive Development, 26(3), 269-281.
[53] Mahy C. E. V., Moses L. J., & Kliegel M. (2014). The development of prospective memory in children: An executive framework. Developmental Review, 34(4), 305-326.
[54] Marsh, R. L., & Hicks, J. L. (1998). Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(2), 336-349.
[55] Martin, M., & Kliegel, M. (2003). Die Entwicklung komplexer prospektiver Gedächtnisleistungim Kindesalter. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie, 35(2), 75-82.
[56] Mattli F., Schnitzspahn K. M., Studerus-Germann A., & Zöllig J. (2014). Prospective memory across the lifespan: Investigating the contribution of retrospective and prospective processes. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 21(5), 515-543.
[57] Mattli F., Zöllig J., & West R. (2011). Age-related differences in the temporal dynamics of prospective memory retrieval: A lifespan approach. Neuropsychologia, 49(12), 3494-3504.
[58] McDaniel, M. A., & Einstein, G. O. (2000). Strategic and automatic processes in prospective memory retrieval: A multiprocess framework. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14(7), S127-S144.
[59] Miyake A., Friedman N. P., Emerson M. J., Witzki A. H., & Howerter A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49-100.
[60] Munakata Y., Snyder H. R., & Chatham C. H. (2012). Developing cognitive control: Three key transitions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(2), 71-77.
[61] Olde Dubbelink, L. M. E., & Geurts, H. M. (2017). Planning skills in autism spectrum disorder across the lifespan: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(4), 1148-1165.
[62] Peisley M., Foster T. M., & Sargisson R. J. (2020). Reinforcing the prospective remembering of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, 53(1), 121-133.
[63] Rajendran, G., & Mitchell, P. (2007). Cognitive theories of autism. Developmental Review, 27(2), 224-260.
[64] Rendell P. G., Vella M. J., Kliegel M., & Terrett G. (2009). Effect of delay on children's delay-execute prospective memory performance. Cognitive Development, 24(2), 156-168.
[65] Rose N. S., Rendell P. G., McDaniel M. A., Aberle I., & Kliegel M. (2010). Age and individual differences in prospective memory during a "Virtual Week": The roles of working memory, vigilance, task regularity, and cue focality. Psychology and Aging, 25(3), 595-605.
[66] Rosenthal M., Wallace G. L., Lawson R., Wills M. C., Dixon E., Yerys B. E., & Kenworthy L. (2013). Impairments in real-world executive function increase from childhood to adolescence in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychology, 27(1), 13-18.
[67] Russell, J. (1997). How executive disorders can bring about an inadequate ‘theory of mind' . In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 256-304). Oxford University Press.
[68] Schnitzspahn K. M., Stahl C., Zeintl M., Kaller C. P., & Kliegel M. (2013). The role of shifting, updating, and inhibition in prospective memory performance in young and older adults. Developmental Psychology, 49(8), 1544-1553.
[69] Schopler E., Reichler R. J., DeVellis R. F., & Daly K. (1980). Toward objective classification of childhood autism: Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 10(1), 91-103.
[70] Sheppard D. P., Kvavilashvili L., & Ryder N. (2016). Event-based prospective memory in mildly and severely autistic children. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 49-50, 22-33.
[71] Sinzig J., Vinzelberg I., Evers D., & Lehmkuhl G. (2014). Executive function and attention profiles in preschool and elementary school children with autism spectrum disorders or ADHD. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 60(3), 144-154.
[72] Ślusarczyk E., Niedźwieńska A., & Białecka-Pikul M. (2018). The first signs of prospective memory. Memory, 26(10), 1385-1395.
[73] van't Wout F., O' Donnell M., & Jarrold C. (2019). An investigation of children's working memory capacity for task rules. Cognitive Development, 51, 14-31.
[74] Voigt B., Aberle I., Schönfeld J., & Kliegel M. (2011). Time-based prospective memory in schoolchildren: The role of self-initiation and strategic time monitoring. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 219(2), 92-99.
[75] Wang L., Altgassen M., Liu W., Xiong W., Akgün C., & Kliegel M. (2011). Prospective memory across adolescence: The effects of age and cue focality. Developmental Psychology, 47(1), 226-232.
[76] Wang L., Kliegel M., Liu W., & Yang Z. (2008). Prospective memory performance in preschoolers: Inhibitory control matters. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(3), 289-302.
[77] Wiebe, S. A., & Karbach, J. (2017). Executive function: Development across the life span. Routledge.
[78] Williams D., Boucher J., Lind S., & Jarrold C. (2013). Time-based and event-based prospective memory in autism spectrum disorder: The roles of executive function and theory of mind, and time-estimation. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1555-1567.
[79] Williams D. M., Jarrold C., Grainger C., & Lind S. E. (2014). Diminished time-based, but undiminished event-based, prospective memory among intellectually high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder: Relation to working memory ability. Neuropsychology, 28(1), 30-42.
[80] Yang T. X., Chan R. C. K., & Shum D. (2011). The development of prospective memory in typically developing children. Neuropsychology, 25(3), 342-352.
[81] Yi L., Fan Y. B., Joseph L., Huang D., Wang X. Q., Li J., & Zou X. B. (2014). Event-based prospective memory in children with autism spectrum disorder: The role of executive function. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 8(6), 654-660.
[82] Zamroziewicz M., Raskin S. A., Tennen H., Austad C. S., Wood R. M., Fallahi C. R., Dager A. D., Sawyer B., Leen S., & Pearlson G. D. (2017). Effects of drinking patterns on prospective memory performance in college students. Neuropsychology, 31(2), 191-199.
[83] Zelazo, P. D. (2006). The Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS): A method of assessing executive function in children. Nature Protocols, 1(1), 297-301.
[84] Zelazo P. D., Carlson S. M., & Kesek, A. (2008). Development of executive function in childhood. In C. A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 553-574). MIT Press.
[85] Zelazo P. D., Carter A., Reznick J. S., & Frye D. (1997). Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework. Review of General Psychology, 1(2), 198-226.
[86] Zelazo P. D., Frye D., & Rapus T. (1996). An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11(1), 37-63.
[87] Zhang X., Zuber S., Liu S., Kliegel M., & Wang L. (2017). The effects of task instructor status on prospective memory performance in preschoolers. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14(1), 102-117.
[88] Zimmermann, T. D., & Meier, B. (2010). The effect of implementation intentions on prospective memory performance across the lifespan. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24(5), 645-658.
[89] Zöllig J., Martin M., & Kliegel M. (2010). Forming intentions successfully: Differential compensational mechanisms of adolescents and old adults. Cortex, 46(4), 575-589.
[90] Zöllig J., West R., Martin M., Altgassen M., Lemke U., & Kliegel M. (2007). Neural correlates of prospective memory across the lifespan. Neuropsychologia, 45(14), 3299-3314.
[91] Zuber S., Kliegel M., & Ihle A. (2016). An individual difference perspective on focal versus nonfocal prospective memory. Memory and Cognition, 44(8), 1192-1203.
[92] Zuber S., Mahy C. E. V., & Kliegel M. (2019). How executive functions are associated with event-based and time-based prospective memory during childhood. Cognitive Development, 50, 66-79.