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Chunk tightness causes chunk decomposition difficulty: element type or crossed relation? Yi LEI Hong LI 2019, 42(1): 2-7.  Abstract ( )   PDF (973KB) ( )   Chunk decomposition is an important mechanism of restructuring in insight problem solving for overcoming impasse. However, one basic issue remained unresolved that why chunk tightness causes the difficulty of chunk decomposition. For this purpose, we examined the role of element type and crossed relation on chunk decomposition difficulty in three experiments based on the Chinese character subtracting task in which participants were asked to remove one target element from a source character in order to get a new character. In Experiment 1 and 2, the two variables including element type (character level vs. non-character level) and crossed relation (uncrossed relation vs. crossed relation) were manipulated in a within-subject design. Thirty two volunteers (16 female; average age: 20.38 ± 2.08 years) participated in Experiment 1, whereas thirty volunteers (15 female; average age: 20.33 ± 1.73 years) participated in Experiment 2. All the participants were native Chinese, right-handed, with normal or corrected-to-normal vision. They got proper rewards after the experiments. The main difference between Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 was stimuli presentation style: the source character and the removed element were simultaneously presented in Experiment 1 whereas the presentation of the removed element was followed by the source character in Experiment 2. There were approximately consistent results between the two experiments, which showed that relative to uncrossed relation, crossed relation lead to lower solution rates and longer response times in chunk decomposition, regardless of the type of the to-be-removed element; chunk decomposition in stroke level required longer response times compared to that in character level and this effect was limited to the uncrossed relation condition. For the condition of crossed relation, there were no differences or even different patterns. The main aim of Experiment 3 was to examine whether the effect of crossed relation on chunk decomposition difficulty still holds in contrast to another type of non-crossed relation----left-right spatial relation. For the purpose, in Experiment 3, the two variables: element type (character level vs. stroke level) and spatial relation (left-right relation vs. top-down relation vs. crossed relation) were manipulated in a within-subject design in the Chinese character subtracting task with subsequent presentation style. Thirty volunteers (15 female; average age: 20.63 ± 1.83 years) participated in Experiment 3. All the others were the same with Experiment 1 and 2. The effects of crossed relation and element type on chunk decomposition difficulty were replicated. Additionally, the solution rate was lower in the condition of crossed relation than that in uncrossed relation (whatever in the condition of left-right relation or top-down relation). There is no difference between the two latter conditions. In conclusion, we demonstrated that chunk tightness is a basic variable that can causes the difficulty of chunk decomposition, which is mainly determined by spatially crossed relation but weakly influenced by element type. Moreover, based on crossed relation, the effect of chunk tightness on the difficulty of chunk decomposition is robust across different paradigms as well as different styles of stimuli presentation (subsequent or simultaneous). Related Articles | Metrics

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The Interaction of Absolute Importance and Cognitive Resources on Prospective Memory 2019, 42(1): 29-35.  Abstract ( )   PDF (498KB) ( )   Prospective memory is to remember an intention at an appropriate moment in the future. Prospective memory tasks can be more or less important. Important intentions often get more attentional resources in order to be successfully remembered. However, sometimes, it is not possible to neglect the ongoing task even if the prospective memory task is important. In prospective memory research, common manipulation methods include relative importance instructions (i.e., emphasizing the prospective memory task more important relative to the ongoing task) or absolute importance instructions (i.e., emphasizing the prospective memory task itself). In most of studies, relative importance resulted in enhanced prospective memory performance but came at costs in the ongoing task. However, it is not clear to the influence of absolute importance effects on ongoing task performance. The multiprocess view suggests that depending on task resources demands, people rely to different degrees on monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval for prospective remembering. So far, only two studies (Einstein et al., 2005; Walter & Meier, 2015) investigated the impact of absolute importance and cognitive resources on prospective memory performance,and had inconsistent results on ongoing task performance. However, the absolute importance instruction uesd in the first study is similar to relative importance instruction, and the manipulation method of cognitive resources used in the second study may be ineffective. The aim of the present study was to examine?the?interaction between absolute importance of prospective memory and cognitive resources occupied by ongoing task.?In this study, absolute importance was varied by instructing participants that remembering to perform the prospective memory task was very important in half of the trials (high importance condition), whereas not important in other half (low importance condition). In addition, we adopted the Stroop task as ongoing task to manipulate cognitive resources occupancy rate, which contains congruent level (high resource occupancy condition) and incongruent level (low resource occupancy condition). The experiment conformed to a 2(absolute importance: high vs. low) by 2(ongoing task congruency: congruent vs. incongruent) within-subjects design. The prospective memory task was to press a specific key if the participant happened to see one of four target color(i.e., pink) during performing the Stroop task. Results showed that the prospective memory performance in the congruent condition was faster than the incongruent condition. For the accuracy and RTs of the ongoing task, the interaction between absolute importance and ongoing task congruency was significant. The subsequent analysis revealed that in the congruent condition, the ongoing task performance with high importance of prospective memory task was better than that in the low importance condition. Under the condition of not congruent, the ongoing task performance with high importance of prospective memory task was poorer than that in the low importance condition. The present study suggests that ongoing task congruency affects prospective memory performance. Importantly, cognitive resources occupied by ongoing task moderates the effects of absolute importance on ongoing task. In the congruent condition, increased importance of prospective memory task may enhance the performance of ongoing task; while in the incongruent condition, increased task importance may interfere the performance of ongoing task. Related Articles | Metrics

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Social Interference Stimuli Induce the Disappearence of Flanker Effect Chao-Lun ChaoWang Ming-Ming Zhang Hong LI Yi LEI Guo-Yao LIN lingcong ZHANG Qingfei Chen 2019, 42(1): 15-21.  Abstract ( )   PDF (597KB) ( )   Faces carry a lot of social information and are more likely to capture attention than other objects. The purpose of this paper is to explore the social faces how to influence the three networks of attention. Previous studies had found that social faces positively affected attentional orienting and executive control, whereas reduced the efficiency of alerting, but the related studies are too little to form solid evidence. Besides, some researches showed that when participants were presented with the face flanker tasks in which faces replaced arrows, the flanker effect would disappear. However, the reason of this phenomenon is not known for us. Federico, Marotta, Adriani, Maccari, & Casagrande (2013) believed that it was the sociality of the target stimuli inducing the phenomenon. Because the social faces occupy more attention resources. But there has a problem that the cocial disturbed stimuli, over the two sides of the face, will disturb the attention at the same time. The present research employed the ANT-I paradigm (attention network test-interactions) to measure the three attention networks: alerting, orienting and executive control. Except the classic arrow flanker stimuli (arrow-arrow-arrow, AAA), the face flanker task (face-face-face, FFF) to examine the influence of social faces on attention was also developed. In order to examine the executive control of social information, there were two new mixed flanker tasks here: first was the central face as target stimuli and flanked by congruent or incongruent arrows (arrow-face-arrow, AFA); second was the central arrow as target stimuli and flanked by congruent or incongruent faces (face-arrow-face, FAF). Our hypothesis is that if classic flanker effect disappear in FAF and FFF conditions, the disappearance effect found in FFF condition is not caused by the central target face. Because in the FAF condition, the target stimuli is arrow without any sociality. Similarly, in AFA condition, if there is not any effect found in FFF condition, it also proves that the central target face plays no role in the effect. Because the target stimuli of both AFA and FFF are social faces. Conversely, the central target face cause it. The experimental procedure based on the study of Callejas, Lupiánez, Funes & Tudela (2004), replacing their flanker tasks through the E-Prime 2.0 software. A 2 (alerting: sounds, no sounds)×2 (orienting: right, wrong)×2 (executive control: congruent, incongruent)×4 (flanker type: AAA, FFF, AFA, FAF) repeated-measures ANOVA on reaction times was performed. The results show that: (a) the interaction between alerting and flanker type, and the interaction between orienting and flanker type do not reach significance, which suggests that social faces have no influence on alerting and orienting in the present tasks; (b) the interactive effect between executive control and flanker type is significant, F(3,44) = 78.5, p＜.01, η2 p = .64. Further simple-effect analysis reveals that when disturbed stimuli are arrows (AAA and AFA), the flanker effect appear, but when disturbed stimuli are faces (FFF and FAF), the flanker effect disappear. It suggests that the disappearance of the flanker effect described above might be caused by the sociality of disturbed stimuli. In summary, this study is firstly employing a mixed flanker task. And it not only extends the social information to be used in the ANT-I, but also illuminates the true reason of face flanker effect’s disappearance. This research offers a empirical support and theoretical perspective for the processing and control mechanism of social and nonsocial information. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Pre- or Post- Context on the Semantic Access of Chengyu Huan WANG 2019, 42(1): 22-28.  Abstract ( )   PDF (834KB) ( )   The access of the non-literal meaning reflects the abstract cognitive language process, which is influenced by various internal and external factors. Chengyu is a special kind of Chinese idioms with their fixed forms and meanings, many of which are compositional. While their non-literal (usu. figurative) meanings are more likely to be comprehended as the salient meaning, the literal meaning of these compositional idioms can also be accessed in some special contexts. Studies have shown that the biased meanings of contexts always influence the access of the dynamic meaning of ambiguous phrases. But few studies have found concerning the influence of context location on idioms’ access. This study was to explore how contexts at different locations influence the agent’s access to the meaning of Chengyu. It involved three contributory questions: 1) As ambiguous phrases, how can the meaning of compositional Chengyu be accessed? 2) Can the access to the meaning of Chengyu be influenced by post-context as well as pre-context? 3) If it is true, what is the difference between the function of pre- and post- contexts on the access to the meaning of Chengyu? This study adopted a self-paced reading test. It was designed in the form of 2 (location of the context: pre-context vs. post-context) × 2(biased meaning of the context: salient/figurative meaning vs. non-salient/literal meaning). Subjects in the test were all college students with Chinese as mother tongue. Preliminary tests were conducted to ensure all the target Chengyu items in the test are compositional, familiar to the subjects and with the figurative meaning as their salient meanings. Chengyu items in the self-paced test were showed first without context and then again with biased pre-context or post-contexts. Subjects were required to read these Chengyu items and identify their first accessed meaning or sentences with Chengyu and identify their dynamic meanings in that particular context. With SPSS 23.0, this study analyzed the reaction times that the subjects used when they pressed the keyboard as they continued their phrase or sentence reading. The statistics showed that semantic access of Chengyu included at least two levels: the activation of multiple potential lexical meanings and their match with the biased meaning of sentence context. In addition, context location had significant influence on semantic access of Chengyu’s figurative (salient) meaning. To be specific, pre-context location might preset the access of Chengyu’s figurative (salient) meaning. It was found that if the context-biased meaning was in accordance with the figurative (salient) meaning, the pre-context might speed up the access of figurative (salient) meaning. If not, it might inhibit the access of figurative meaning, which meant it would take the agent longer time until the literal meaning was accessed. In addition, post-context was found to function in checking the meaning of Chengyu reversely and then rectifying the under-identifying meaning in two ways:1) If the first accessed figurative meaning was suitable to the post-context, then the access process would succeed and the literal meaning would be suspended meanwhile; 2) if not, the post-context would prohibit it and the process would not finish until its literal meaning was accessed. Such conclusion was in accordance to the dynamic self-organization model. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Encoding Strategy on Visual Form Memory 2019, 42(1): 8-14.  Abstract ( )   PDF (844KB) ( )   Visual form memory is critical for the acquisition of written language. Previous studies on visual word learning and gender differences in face memory have indicated that encoding strategy (i.e., whole-based encoding and part-based encoding) may affect the memory of visual stimuli. The whole- and part-based encoding respectively mean participants’ specific focus on the whole information and part information during encoding. Nevertheless, it still lacks of direct experimental evidence for the impact of encoding strategy on visual form memory. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the impact of encoding strategy on visual form memory and its consistency across different writing systems. To address the above questions, the present study conducted two experiments, in which the study-test paradigm and within-subject design were used. Experiment 1 examined the impact of encoding strategy on visual form memory, and Experiment 2 further examined the consistency of the encoding-strategy effect across different writing systems. During the study phase, participants were asked to memorize the visual forms of 80 Korean Hangul characters in Experiment 1 and those of 96 English pseudowords in Experiment 2. Both experiments consisted of two conditions (i.e., whole-based encoding and part-based encoding). The learning materials in the two conditions and the order of the two conditions were counterbalances across participants. The whole- and part-based encoding strategies were induced by including randomly-presented trials for whole-word judgment or unit judgment in the learning sequence, respectively. Specifically, participants were instructed to judge whether the probe stimulus was the same as the target word in whole-based encoding condition and whether the probe stimulus was a unit of the target word in part-based encoding condition. A recognition memory test was administered one hour after the learning phase. To ensure that whole- and part-based encoding strategies were respectively induced by the whole-word judgment task and unit judgment task, an interview on each participant’s encoding strategies was additionally conducted in Experiment 2. Results on interview showed that the whole- and part-based encoding strategies were successfully induced by whole-word judgment and unit judgment, respectively. More importantly, in both experiments, we found that participants showed advantages in visual form memory in the part-based encoding condition relative to whole-based encoding condition. Furthermore, the advantages for part-based encoding over whole-based encoding were evident for both Korean words and English pseudowords. In other words, the memory superiority for part-based encoding were consistent across different writing systems (i.e., logographic and alphabetic writings). These results suggest that part-based encoding relative to whole-based encoding facilitates visual form memory. In conclusion, the present study investigated the impact of encoding strategy on visual form memory and its cross-language consistency by manipulating part- and whole-based encoding during the learning phase. This study provided direct evidence for the advantages for part-based encoding relative to whole-based encoding, and revealed that such memory advantages were consistent across different writing systems. The advantages for part-based encoding can be explained by hemispheric specialization view or levels of processing view, and have important implications for word learning and teaching, especially for the learning of words with complicated visual forms such as Chinese and Korean words. Related Articles | Metrics

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Audiovisual Temporal Sensitivity Deficits and Its Brain Mechanism in Developmental Dyslexia Yi-Jun RUAN 2019, 42(1): 36-42.  Abstract ( )   PDF (347KB) ( )   Developmental dyslexia refer to a pattern of specific learning difficulty characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, and it can’t be explained by the patients’ intelligence and inadequate education. As for the cognitive mechanism of dyslexia, there still no clear conclusion in current researches. Of them, phonological deficit theory is the most accepted by researchers. Phonological deficit theory considers that dyslexia is the result of impaired auditory modality. However, reading is a process not only needs auditory modality, but also visual modality. It requires learning the binding of graphemes and phonemes automatically. Nowadays, more and more researchers found that reading impairment is the reflect of audiovisual integration deficit not limited in single modality. The most typically theory base on cross-modality processing deficit is graphemes-phonemes binding theory. It raises that dyslexia readers couldn’t integrate visual inputs and auditory inputs into unit, then result in reading difficulties. Graphemes-phonemes binding deficit as one of the most important performance of dyslexia, its potential mechanism maybe deficit in more basic audiovisual cognitive process. A series of research found that dyslexia readers have audiovisual temporal sensitivity deficit during audiovisual processing. Audiovisual temporal sensitivity means the sensing capability one perceive the onset time between visual stimulus and auditory stimulus. Some researchers put forward that because dyslexia readers have difficulty in judging timing about audiovisual information, so that they have ambiguities in the pair relationship between graphemes and phonemes and then unable to construct text normally. Audiovisual temporal sensitivity can be explored through three types of task: the first one is simultaneity judgment task, which require subjects to judge if the audiovisual stimulus is happen simultaneously; the second one is temporal-order judgment task, which needs subjects to judge the order between auditory stimulus and visual stimulus; the last one is audiovisual integration task, which asks participants report their perceived fusion stimulus under synchronous or asynchronous audiovisual stimulus. Timing window is the main index of audiovisual temporal sensitivity, it means the time span between two different onset stimulus. Many studies using these tasks to explore audiovisual temporal sensitivity evidenced that compare with typical readers, people with developmental dyslexia show deficits in audiovisual temporal sensitivity, and their timing window is wider than typical readers. Adequate binding between graphemes and phonemes needs happen in a narrow timing window, and broaden audiovisual timing window will result in such binding construct unsuccessfully, and finally result in dyslexia. Some intervention studies found that the timing window has plasticity in healthy people and the span of timing window can narrow after training. Therefore, training audiovisual temporal sensitivity of dyslexia readers and narrowing their timing window may have great potentials in improving dyslexia symptom. Some neuropsychological studies found that the brain region working in the audiovisual timing processing located in posterior Superior Temporal Sulcus(pSTS), which receive signals from visual cortex and auditory cortex and integrate these signals. Compare with typical readers, the activation of pSTS in dyslexia readers is abnormal, it maybe the neuro mechanism of audiovisual temporal sensitivity deficit. Also, some Electroencephalogram studies found that Mismatch Negativity(MMN) and Late Discriminatory Negativity(LDN) evoke abnormally in dyslexia readers and it relate to their audiovisual temporal sensitivity deficit. In conclusion, many studies have evidenced that compare with typical readers, people with developmental dyslexia show deficits in audiovisual temporal sensitivity not only in the behavior level, but also in the neuropsychological level. However, most of such studies were conducted under the context of alphabetic language. There still small amount of research about such domain in Chinese culture. Future researches need improve the experimental design, enlarge the study about audiovisual temporal sensitivity in the context of Chinese, and develop interventions based on temporal sensitivity, so that provide references about the core mechanism and clinical treatment for dyslexia. Related Articles | Metrics

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Children's Internet Use and Academic Achievements: A Moderated Mediation Model DONG rouchun Zong-Kui ZHOU Qing-Qi LIU 2019, 42(1): 68-74.  Abstract ( )   PDF (751KB) ( )   Abstract Nowadays, the Internet has been popular all over the world and permeated people’s daily lives. The online platforms help people get extensive information and expand their ideas. In the Internet age, people use the Internet mainly for several purposes, such as searching, entertainment, accessing to information and social interaction. Not only are adults the case, children are getting into the network. According to the Report On the Use of Children’s Network in China, about half of children have access to the Internet in preschool. Therefore, many parents are beginning to worry about the negative effects of the Internet on their children, such as cyber violence, harmful information, online games addiction and so on. Nevertheless, the positive impacts of the Internet should also be highlighted. Researchers revealed that Internet can promote education justice because people of all genders, races, and income can use the Internet to study at any time and at any place. The vast information provided by Internet can provide individuals successful experience to enhance self-efficacy, which in turn may increase academic achievement. In addition, since children’s personality is greatly influenced by the environment, they are curious about the world, this study will explore that whether openness would affect the use of children’s network. To investigate the relationships among Internet use, learning efficacy, academic achievement and openness, a survey research method was adopted in which the Network usage Questionnaire, Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, Five-factor Questionnaire for Chinese Adolescent Personality and student's academic record were administered to 425 pupils. Data were collected and analyzed with SPSS 20.0. The results indicated: (1) There was no direct predictive effect of Internet use on academic achievement, but Internet use had an indirect effect on academic achievement through the mediation effect of learning efficacy. (2) Children’s openness played a moderating role in the first half of the mediation path. For individuals with high openness, the mediating effect of learning efficacy was not significant, whereas this mediating effect was significant for individual with low openness.. These findings highlight the complex relationship of association between Internet use and academic achievement. Internet use enhances learning performance by providing a lot of information for people to gain a successful experience that improves their academic performance. Open-minded children love new things, and they are more likely to be addicted to online leisure and entertainment activities, which cannot improve learning efficacy. Therefore, parents and educators must respect the characteristics of children and guide them to rationally use the network. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cross-lagged Analysis of Relationship between Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy and Mental Health in Adolescents 2019, 42(1): 82-87.  Abstract ( )   PDF (691KB) ( )   Cross-lagged Analysis of Relationship between Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy and Mental Health in Adolescents Hai Man1,2,3, Xiong Junmei1,3 （1 School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079;2 Shiyan City Experimental Middle School，442000）;3 Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430079） Abstract: During the past two decades, a body of research has shown that affective self-regulatory efficacy plays an important role in students’ psychological functioning. High affective self-regulatory efficacy is often accompanied by more prosocial behavior and low involvement in delinquency and depression. In addition, the specific affective self-regulatory efficacy [i.e., self-efficacy to regulate positive emotion, perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation (ANG), and perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress (DES)] may play different roles in different mental health indicators. But there is a lack of research on the relations between ANG and mental health, and DES and mental health. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the relations between the three types of affective self-regulatory efficacy and mental health. Procedures: The study followed the consent procedure. The school leaders, class supervisors and parents of participants were contacted to get their permission for students to take part in the survey. Participants took part in the survey on a voluntary basis. In September 2013 and January 2014, the Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale, the Adolescent Problem Behavior Scale, the Anxiety/Depression Subscale of Achenbach Adolescent Behavior Checklist, the Life Satisfaction Scale were administered to 531 junior and senior high school students. Cross-lagged models were used to explore the reciprocal relations between affective self-regulatory efficacy (self-efficacy to regulate positive emotion, perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress, perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation) and mental health (problem behaviors, depression, and life satisfaction). The results indicated that: (1) The Paired t-test revealed that from T1 to T2, there was no significant change in students' perceived self-efficacy in expressing positive affect, perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress, externalizing problems，or life satisfaction, but perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation（t=-0.13, p<0.01）decreased significantly. (2) perceived self-efficacy in expressing positive affect at T1 did not predict problem behaviors, anxiety/depression or life satisfaction at T2; but the perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress at T1 significantly predicted depression at T2(γ=-0.11，SE=0.04，p<0.05), and life satisfaction and depression at T1 significantly predicted perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation at T2(γ=0.18，SE=0.09，p<0.01; γ=-0.10，SE=0.12，p<0.05). Conclusion: Students’ perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress and perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation have different relationships with mental health indicators: adolescents with high levels of perceived self-efficacy in managing despondency/distress may have low levels of depression, and low levels of life satisfaction and high levels of depression may lead to low levels of perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation. Therefore, perceived self-efficacy in managing anger/irritation is more likely to be affected by poor mental health. Implications for practice are discussed: A better understanding of the reciprocal relationship between emotional regulatory self-efficacy and mental health can help school psychologists design more appropriate intervention programs to enhance adolescents’ mental health. Key words: Affective self-regulatory efficacy, Anxiety/Depression, Life Satisfaction, Problem behaviors, Adolescent. Related Articles | Metrics

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Evaluation of Adolescent Problematic Mobile Social Network Usage Based on Angoff Method 2019, 42(1): 75-81.  Abstract ( )   PDF (876KB) ( )   Abstract: With the increase of the number of problematic mobile social network usage, the following psychological problems are emerging, the traditional norm referencing test can no longer meet the needs of screening and evaluating of this problem. The existing evaluation tool mainly has the following problems: First, most of the tools continue the research idea of internet addiction, which is based on the symptom criteria of pathological gambling, and leads to a lot of similarities in the structure of the tools; Second, the current preparation of such tools is mainly based on the use of Facebook, according to the features of Facebook to set the appropriate topic; Third, the problematic mobile social network usage related scales has no specific distinction between the online social network based on the traditional Internet or the online social network based on the mobile terminal; Fourth, existing mobile phone or social network related evaluation tools can only explore the basic structure or severity of the phenomenon, but does not have the function of screening; Fifth, this kind of tool is mainly based on foreign research, and there is no special screening assessment tool for mobile social network in our country. In order to further screen and evaluate the problematic mobile social network usage, based on the relevant symptoms and theoretical structures of the Handbook on Mental Illness Statistics and Diagnosis (DSM-5) and the realistic social representation of the problematic mobile social network usage, this paper uses Angoff method to define and evaluate the problematic mobile social network usage for adolescents. The classic Angoff method requires the selection of highly experienced experts to form a panel that assesses the probability of affirmative answers to a test question for a typical person who has just reached a certain minimum level of competence, and the score on the entire scale averaging to obtain a critical value, if the test scores greater than the critical value is considered to reach a certain level, conversely have not reached a certain level. The study improved Angoff method, provide a priori probability to choose for the experts in the expert evaluation, and two evaluation exercises in the official evaluation. Therefore, all experts are skilled operator, which can reduce the error caused by the expert is not skilled enough. According to the standardized process compiled by the questionnaire, this study collected data from university teachers, middle school teachers, psychological counsellors, middle school students and college students.?The evaluation samples of Angoff method include teacher expert sample, adolescent expert sample, reliability and validity test sample. The expert sample is composed of 15 teachers and 15 teenagers. The reliability test samples were 768 adolescents and 90 problem users and normal users. The results showed that: there are eight or more questions with positive answers can be assessed as problematic mobile social network usage in the screening assessment questionnaire. In the empirical discriminant validity test, the detection rate of normal users was 12%, and the detection rate of problematic users was 91.1%. Based on the Angoff method, the evaluation tool for the problematic mobile social network usage has a good psychological measurement attribute, which can be used for the evaluation of the problematic mobile social network usage. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Material’s Presentation Mode and Review or not on the Learning Effects of Chinese Electronic Note-taking Jing-Jun CHEN Peng Wu 2019, 42(1): 50-55.  Abstract ( )   PDF (377KB) ( )   As a folk adage said in china, “the palest ink is better than the best memory” is becoming a history. The electronic note-taking is becoming more and more popular and the traditional note-taking is being abandoned. Actually, electronic note-taking and traditional note-taking may differ in their encoding function, external-storage function and the combination of encoding function and storage function, and so on. The encoding function of the note-taking strategy determines its immediate learning effects. According the “translation hypothesis”, as using traditional note-taking, the immediate learning effects on visual materials is better than that on auditory materials. As using traditional note-taking, the orthographic processing is mainly activated. So, writing down what you hear will produce more translations from phonological processing to orthographic processing. In English study, there is little difference between the processing translation modes of traditional note-taking and electronic note-taking in the face of the same materials. But as typing Chinese electronic notes, which using Pinyin keyboarding, the phonological processing is mainly activated. While as handwriting Chines traditional notes, the orthographic processing is mainly activated. It means as using Chinese electronic note-taking, the immediate learning effects on visual materials may be worse than it on auditory materials. The combination of encoding function and storage function determines the delayed learning effects of the note-taking strategy. In order to study the “translation hypothesis”, we asked participants to verbatim transcription the materials. In this case, the Chinese electronic note-taking have same storage function on the visual and auditory materials. So, it is very important whether the immediate learning effects can be maintained well before review. The cognitive load generated during processing translate is mainly intrinsic cognitive load. The intrinsic cognitive load has limited help for learners to store information in their long-term memory. It means if the review is not timely, the immediate learning effects will not be maintained well. At this time, the role of review in visual group and auditory group may be the same. Based on the “translation hypothesis”, we took 104 college students as the participants, systematically discussed the influence of material’s presentation mode, review or not and test time on the learning effects of Chinese electronic note-taking to test above propositions. The results supported our hypotheses. The results were as following: (1) the immediate learning effects of Chinese electronic note-taking on visual materials were worse than it on auditory materials; (2) if review is not allowed, there was no significant differences between visual group and auditory group in the delayed learning effects of Chinese electronic note-taking; (3) there was no significant differences between visual group and auditory group in review effects. The present study extends our understanding of the “translation hypothesis” of note-taking. It's a new embodiment of the “translation hypothesis” in Chinese electronic note-taking. In conclusion, the study shows that using Chinese electronic note-taking when reading is better than using it when listen to lectures or reports. This advantage is mainly reflected in the immediate learning effects. But to use this advantage in review, the review must be in time. Related Articles | Metrics

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Developmental Trajectories and Influencing Factors of Fear of Negative Evaluation In Adolescence （revised） 2019, 42(1): 62-67.  Abstract ( )   PDF (481KB) ( )   Fear of negative evaluation(FNE) was defined as anticipate and apprehension about others' evaluations, distress over their negative evaluations. Elkind proposed that teenagers move through a period of egocentrism, characterized by the belief that he or she is the continual object of everyone’s attention. During this period, adolescences not only need to face their physical and psychological changes, but also deal with their "imaginary audience" . These imaginary audiences will evaluate themselves. Therefore, the phenomenon of teenage fear of negative evaluation is particularly prominent, which may affect their healthy growth and performance in school. However, in the past, few studies were known about the developmental trajectories of fear of negative evaluation and the contributing factors and mechanisms that underlie the development, particularly in life stages with an accumulation of changes and challenges. Accordingly, a three-year longitudinal study was conducted to examine the change trajectories of fear of negative evaluation, and how self-perception shaped the development of middle school students. A total of 1222 seventh-grade adolescents were recruited from two middle schools and participated in this study. 977 adolescents participated in three consecutive years. The average age for the adolescents was 13.52 years (SD = 11.54 months). The study adopted the Social Anxiety Scale for Children-revised and Self-Perception Profile for Children to assess fear of negative evaluation, scholastic self-perception and social self-perception during three periods of time in May of 2012, May of 2013, May of 2014 respectively. The latent growth modeling was used to examine: (1) There was a significant increase of fear of negative evaluation in middle students over past three years（S=.05，p<.001）. (2) Scholastic self-perception and social self-perception as a time-variant variable influenced adolescent fear of negative evaluation. Higher level of scholastic self-perception or social self-perception at given testing point could decrease adolescent fear of negative evaluation at that time. (3) The role of gender on the development trajectories of fear of negative evaluation was due to gender differences of self-perception. Our findings suggest that developmental trajectories of fear of negative evaluation are influenced by changes in the forms and functions of social expectations, relationships and ego level at different developmental stages. And all these trajectories are influenced by perceived pressure at different developmental stages. Students who just entered middle school from primary school would grow higher levels of socio-cognitive maturity. They reported more interpersonal pressure (such as peer relationship, teacher-student relationship) and achievement stress (such as academic performance, exercise performance), which were different from adults. A better understanding of the causes and consequences of change in fear of negative evaluation across the critical age period of adolescence can help to ameliorate intervention programs designed to assist maladaptive adolescents. As Loevinger noted: every stage has its weaknesses, its problems, and its paradoxes, which provide both a potential for maladjustment and a potential for growth. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Learning Agency Beliefs on Affective Forecasting Bias in Middle School Students’ Learning Behavior 2019, 42(1): 56-61.  Abstract ( )   PDF (439KB) ( )   Affective forecasting refers to our predictions about how pleasant or unpleasant certain future events will make us feel. People tend to overestimate the impact of future events on their emotions, which is known as impact bias. The present research focuses on whether there is impact bias in middle school students’ learning behavior and the influence of learning agency belief on affective forecasting of middle school students. To test the hypotheses, three experiments were conducted. In experiment 1, a total of 100 middle school students participated the competition of “who will be the winner”. Before the test, they predicted the pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded or failed in the test, and were asked to report their actual pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure in the test. Results showed that all the students overestimated both the pleasantness of success and the unpleasantness of failure. In experiment 2, a total of 240 middle school students were told to participate a fake high school entrance examination. According to their scores of learning agency belief scale, they were divided into two groups, one group is with high agency belief and the other one is with low agency belief. Before the test, they predicted the pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded or failed in the test, and were asked to report their actual pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure in the test. Results showed that for predicting the pleasantness of success, students with high agency beliefs showed smaller impact bias than those with low agency beliefs. However, for predicting the unpleasantness of failure, students with high agency beliefs showed bigger impact bias than those with low agency beliefs. In experiment 3, a total of 300 middle school students participated the final exam. According to their scores of learning agency belief scale, they were divided into two groups, one group is with high agency belief and the other one is with low agency belief. Before the test, they predicted the pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure in the test. After the test, they were told that they had succeeded or failed in the test, and were asked to report their actual pleasantness of success and unpleasantness of failure. Results showed that for predicting the pleasantness of success, students with high agency beliefs showed smaller impact bias than those with low agency beliefs. However, for predicting the unpleasantness of failure, students with high agency beliefs showed bigger impact bias than those with low agency beliefs. In sum, the present research found that middle school students overestimated the impact of future learning outcomes on their feelings. Besides, learning agency beliefs influenced middle school students’ impact bias. The present research has both important theoretical and practical implications. Limitations and further research have been discussed as well. Related Articles | Metrics

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Explaining RAN Deficit of Chinese Children with Developmental Dyslexia 2019, 42(1): 43-49.  Abstract ( )   PDF (621KB) ( )   Rapid automatized naming (RAN) deficit is one of the cognitive deficits of dyslexic in both alphabetic languages and Chinese. Two hypotheses have been put forward to account for the RAN dysfunction in dyslexic: reduced parafoveal preview benefits and increased parafoveal load costs. At present, these two hypotheses have not been distinguished because previous studies only manipulated one of the two variables in one experiment; however, the manipulations of parafoveal preview and parafoveal load are correlational. The present study will test these two hypotheses directly by manipulating the parafoveal load and parafoveal preview in single experiment, in order to distinguish the two hypotheses in terms of the accounts for the RAN deficits of children with dyslexia. The modified RAN paradigm proposed by Silva et al. (2016) was used. The stimulus set was composed of 28 RAN matrices containing 5 familiar characters. All letters occurred equally and they were pseudo randomly ordered such that there were no immediate repetitions. The spatial arrangement of the traditional 5×10-item matrix was modified, such that character items were irregularly spaced within each row. Half the items stood in the right parafoveal span of the preceding item and thus they could be parafoveally previewed (P). The other half stood beyond the parafoveal span of N-1 (non-previewed, nP). Half the items were followed by parafoveal inputs at the right (had parafoveal load, L) and the other half were not (no parafoveal load, nL). There were, thus, there were four experiment conditions (PL, PnL, nPL, nPnL). Three groups of children were selected as participants: children with developmental dyslexia (DD), chronological age-matched (CA) and reading level-matched (RL). They were instructed to name the characters presented on the screen as soon as possible while their eye movements were recorded by Eye Trackers (Eyelink 1000). The parafoveal preview benefit was computed with the formula (non-previewed—previewed)/previewed, indicating the proportion of the fixation time for previewed items (PL+PnL) that was additionally required when looking at items with no preview (nPL+nPnL). Similarly, the parafoveal load cost was computed as the proportion of the fixation time for non-loaded items (PnL+nPnL) that was additionally required when there was a parafoveal load (PL+nPL). The formula was (loaded-non-loaded)/non-loaded. All three groups of children showed significant parafoveal preview benefit for the measure of gaze duration (all ts > 4.43, all ps < 0.001), but the amount of preview benefit across three groups did not reach significance (F(2, 42) = 2.37, p > 0.05). The significant effect on the measure of total fixation time was only observed for age-matched children (t(14) = 4.70, p < 0.001) . For the amount of parafoveal load, there were no significant differences across three groups of children for measures of gaze duration and total fixation time (both Fs < 2.24, both ps > 0.05). These results above indicated that Chinese dyslexia children showed less parafoveal preview benefit than age-matched children, but parafoveal loads were not significant between the two groups. The present study yields robust evidence, supporting the first account of RAN deficit, that the parafoveal dysfunction of Chinese dyslexia children is due to their reduced parafoveal preview benefits. Related Articles | Metrics

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The concept, theory and accuracy of Face - traits Inference Chen LIU wen fangfang BIN ZUO 2019, 42(1): 150-156.  Abstract ( )   PDF (341KB) ( )   As an important cue of social cognition, faces usually bring lots of information about target’s characters, affecting a variety of domains (Zebrowitz, 2006). therefore, research on facial cognition has gradually been extended to traits inference based faces, such as the facial cues used to inference traits, the characteristics which can be inferred and so on. with the study development, more and more researchers pay attention the accuracy of facial traits inference. a series of studies have been carried out. Firstly, this paper introduce the concept of Face-traits Inference and the relationship between faces and traits. Face-traits Inference is a process of observers inferring other’s traits from faces. On the one hand, observers can read traits from faces. On the other hand, observers can read traits into faces. Then, we account for its theoretical basis from Physiology, evolution and cognitive orientation. Changes in facial structures caused by hormones and maturity can explain this phenomenon from physiology, but it cannot explain the inference of traits related to social relationship. The two main theories in cognitive psychology: stereotypes and overgeneralization effects establish a connection between faces and traits, but these theories do not explain the mechanisms behind the connection. Facial traits inference may be the product of evolution, because some researchers found that the ability to inference traits from faces formed in the early age, with the character of automated processing (Hassin & Trope, 2000; Cogsdill et al. 2014). Due to the important meaning of face-traits inference, researchers apply objective index and subjective index to measure the accuracy of face-traits inference, the objective index including the consistency between the judges, consistency between self and others and the prediction power of behavior. The mainly used subjective index is confidence score. means the confidence of inferring traits from faces, Based on the above accuracy index, It was found that trait inference from faces has moderate accuracy (Wolffhechel et al., 2014). The accuracy of facial trait inference is mainly influenced by three factors of observers, targets and situations. The physiologic factor of targets, such as age, sexual and facial attractiveness affect the accuracy. Interestingly, attraction has two opposite effects on the accuracy. Characters of targets, such as the physiologic factors, mental conditions, experience and cultural background are also important factors affect facial traits inference. For example, needs and motivation of observers influence facial trait inference, it was shown that individuals who are eager to establish intimate relationships with others, are more accurate in detecting affinity cues from faces (Bernstein et al., 2008). Situations and task are also important factors influence the accuracy of trait inference. Finally, the current research proposed some questions that still need further clarification. First of all, previous studies have neglected the interaction between facial configuration and expressions. secondly, previous studies lacked integration of accuracy indicators. thirdly, the recent research focus on the various factors that affect the accuracy of facial trait inference. However, there is no comprehensive consideration of the interaction of these factors. Finally, the theory of facial trait inference needs to be integrated. Regarding the issue above, future research should be carried out from the following aspects. Firstly, in terms of research methods, we should enrich the accuracy index. Secondly, the influence factors of facial trait inference should be comprehensively investigated. Thirdly, clarify the facial cues of traits inference and construct an accurate face-traits inference model. Last but not the least, researchers need to combine the three orientations of physiology, evolution and cognition, at the same time, focus on the interaction between observers and targets in specific situations, so that understand the mechanism under this process and construct a systematic theoretical model. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Parenting Rejection Styles on Chinese Homosexuals’ Suicide：the Mediating Role of Perceived Discrimination and the Moderating Role of Coming out Yan-Wen ZHANG 2019, 42(1): 109-115.  Abstract ( )   PDF (608KB) ( )   Abstract A substantial body of research has demonstrated that levels of suicide risk among homosexual individuals are higher as compared to heterosexual individuals (Mu et al., 2016; Pl?derl et al., 2014; Wei, 2015); However, little is known about the important factors that influence Chinese homosexuals’ suicide. In this study, guided by social-ecological perspective and stress-diathesis model, a moderated mediation model was constructed to examine the effects and underlying mechanisms of stress (parenting rejection styles), cognition (perceived discrimination) and protective (coming out) factors on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide. Specifically, the present study examined whether parenting rejection styles were indirectly related to Chinese homosexuals’ suicide through perceived discrimination, and whether this indirect association was moderated by coming out. The study sample included 493 homosexuals, of which 245 (49.70%) were gay men and 248 (50.30%) lesbians. The research focused on the “identity-centered” model of Chinese homosexuals (Wang, 2013b), so participants’ age ranged from 16 to 35 years (M = 24.12, SD = 5.18). Participants were recruited for the study to complete self-report questionnaires. Parenting rejection styles were measured with the short-egna minnen av barndoms uppfostran questionnaires which consist of 12 items, and the respondents rated the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 4-point Likert scale. Perceived discrimination was measured with the perceived discrimination questionnaire which consists of 10 items, and the respondents rated the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale. Suicide was measured with the suicidal behaviors questionnaire-revised which consists of 4 items, if the participant’s score is more than 7 that the participant will be considered to having a high suicide risk. Coming out was measured with a self-made questionnaire. All the measures have good reliability and validity. The major findings of the present show that (1) Chinese homosexuals were highly suicide risk groups. (2) Parenting rejection styles had a negative effect on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide. (3) The negative impact of parenting rejection styles on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide was mediated by perceived discrimination, while parenting rejection styles not only had a direct influence on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide, but also had an indirect influence on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide through perceived discrimination. (4) Coming out moderated the second path of the mediation. For homosexuals in China whose didn’t coming out, with the increase of perceived discrimination, their suicide had a very obviously ascending trend (βsimple = .27, t = 3.12, p < .01); For homosexuals in China whose coming out, with the increase of perceived discrimination, their suicide hadn’t significantly ascending trend (βsimple = .10, t = 1.83, p > .05). (5) The effect of parenting rejection styles on Chinese homosexuals’ suicide was moderated mediating effect． These findings contributed to our understanding of how and when parenting rejection styles affected Chinese homosexuals’ suicide as viewed through the lenses of the stress-diathesis model. Last but not the least, the paper found special underlying mechanisms of homosexuals’ suicide in China, which was of great theoretical significance and guiding value for focusing on the suicide of Chinese homosexuals. Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-concealment and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in Firefighters：the Serial Multiple Mediation of Experiential Avoidance and Rumination 2019, 42(1): 116-123.  Abstract ( )   PDF (728KB) ( )   The susceptibility for posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) appears to depend on individual personality traits and emotional regulation strategies. As a personality tendency to actively conceal from others personal information that is perceived as distressing, self-concealment can affect mental health through maladaptive emotion regulation processes. However, there is little research examining the links among self-concealment, maladaptive emotion regulation strategies, and PTSS. Alternatively, there is substantial empirical evidence supporting the effects of experiential avoidance and rumination on PTSS. Firefighters constituted a high-risk group for PTSS due to repeated exposure to traumatic events, but studies of PTSS have focused largely on the survivors of traumatic events while there is a paucity of research on firefighters. The object of this study was to investigate the effect of self-concealment on PTSS and the mediating effects of experiential avoidance and rumination in Chinese firefighters who experienced work-related trauma. This study included 215 male firefighters from 24 Fire?Alarm?squadrons in 3 large cities of Northern China (mean age ± standard deviation, 22.90 ± 3.38 years) who had experienced work-related trauma. Participants anonymously completed Chinese versions of the following self-report measures: Essen Trauma Inventory, Self-Concealment Scale, Nolen-Hoeksema Ruminative Responses Scale, Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-Second Edition, and Impact of Event Scale-Revised. Correlation analyses were performed using SPSS20.0. The path analysis model was tested using Mplus7.4. The Harman’s single factor was used to test whether there was a common method bias. The bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to analyze multiple mediation effects. Correlation analysis revealed significant and positive correlations among self-concealment, experiential avoidance, rumination, and PTSS scale scores. Analysis of the structural equation model revealed that self-concealment can directly promote PTSS (total effect size = 0.427). There were two indirect paths from self-concealment to PTSS: the serial mediation by experiential avoidance and rumination, and mediation by rumination alone. The total indirect effect of self-concealment was 0.217, accounting for 50.82% of the total effect. In addition, 64 (29.77%) firefighters who had experienced work-related trauma exhibited severe PTSS as measured by the Impact of Event Scale-Revised. In conclusion, self-concealment affects PTSS both directly as well as indirectly by rumination and through the serial mediation of experiential avoidance and rumination. Thus, while self-concealment is often used by survivors as a self-protective strategy for emotion regulation, it may actually prove harmful in the long-term. These findings expand our understanding of how personality traits influence PTSS susceptibility and of the damaging effects of self-concealment on mental health. Effective prevention and treatment of PTSS must address the underlying contributions of self-concealment, experiential avoidance, and rumination. Further, this study found that firefighters are at high risk of PTSS. PTSS in firefighters warrants more intensive monitoring and research. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impacts of Embedding Internet Slang in Ads on Advertising Effectiveness 2019, 42(1): 124-129.  Abstract ( )   PDF (436KB) ( )   The popularization of the Internet slang has encouraged the emergence of Internet slang ads. However, few theoretical explanations have been developed in literature regarding its impacts on persuasion. The exploration on this question will help understand the mechanism of persuasion by Internet slang ads. Previous researches discovered product involvement influences ad persuasion through ELM. Moreover, literature review shows that consumers’ attitude toward the Internet slang will also have a significant impact on ad persuasion. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of embedding Internet slang words in ads. The two manipulated variables of the first experiment were as follows: (a1) for the types of ads: ads with Internet slang words vs. ads with standard language; (a2) for the product involvement: high vs. low. The two manipulated variables of the second experiment were as follows: (b1) for the types of ads: ads with Internet slang words vs. standard language; (b2) for the attitude of Internet slang: positive vs. negative. The participants of the experiments involve 564 college students. The results indicate that: 1)there is no significant impact on persuasion for high involvement products, while for low involvement products, such practice has a significant positive influence on consumers’ attitude toward ads (F (1, 156) = 9.764, p = .002 < .05, η2 = .0596) and product (F (1, 156) = 4.157, p = .043 < .05, η2 = .0263), but its impact on willingness-to-pay is limited; 2) for low involvement products, with the positive attitude toward the Internet slang, ad slogans using Internet slang outperformed the ads without Internet slang by measures of consumers’ attitude toward ads (F (1, 131) = 6.976, p = .043 < .05, η2 = .0313) and product (F (1, 131) = 6.976, p = .009 < .05, η2 = .0513), but its impact on willingness-to-pay is limited. However, if consumers’ attitude toward the Internet slang is negative, the ads without Internet slang outperformed ads using Internet slang by measures of consumers’ attitude toward ads (F (1, 99) = 5.461, p = .022 < .05, η2 = .0533), product (F (1, 99) = 4.019, p = .048 < .05, η2 = .0398) and willingness-to-pay(F (1, 99) = 4.019, p = .048 < .05, η2 = .0398). This research investigates the impact of using Internet slang on persuasion, especially the moderating effects of product involvement and language attitude. The results extend the existing theories regarding Internet slang advertising by explaining how product category characteristics and consumer characteristics may help to produce positive attitude toward advertisements and products and increase consumers’ willingness-to-pay. Future researches may explore more effects based on other product-related variables such as luxuries and non-luxury goods. Moreover, aspects like endorsers and different forms of advertising (such as audio or video ads) may also serve as moderators. Methods like fMRI could be used to explore the neural mechanisms through which advertisements using Internet slang work. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Aggressive Information on the Inhibition of Return in College Students with Fragile High Self-esteem 2019, 42(1): 102-108.  Abstract ( )   PDF (791KB) ( )   The purpose in this study was to explore whether aggressive information could interact with attention by reducing the extent of inhibition of return(IOR) effect and whether the discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem(SE) could modulate IOR effect under attentional biases toward aggressive information. A standard cue-target task was adopted to examine whether the attentional bias was stemmed from attention capture or attentional disengagement. Participates were asked to respond to Rosenberg’s(1965) 10-item Self-Esteem Scale and completed the implicit association task(IAT). According to the results of the tests, the fragile HSE group(a combination of high explicit and low implicit SE) and secure HSE group(a combination of high explicit and high implicit SE) were selected. The Cue-target task was applied in two experiments to measure IOR. Two types of words was served as target in Experiment 1 but as cue in Experiment 2.Participates were asked to respond to the location of the target(the word in Experiment 1 and a black asterisk in Experiment 2) . In Experiment 1, mean RTs subjected to a 2(group: fragile HSE vs. secure HSE) ×2 SOA(500,and 1000ms)×2(Target Valence: aggressive words vs. neutral words) ×2 and (Cueing validity：valid vs. invalid) mixed analysis of variance(ANOVA) revealed a significant main effect on target valence[F（1,66）=5.11,p=.027,η2=.072],reaction times for aggressive words(317.50±7.12ms) were significantly faster than that for neutral words(319.48±7.05ms).And the main effect of cueing validity was significant [F（1,66）=34.85，p<.001，η2=.346], slower RTs on valid(324.32±6.81ms) than on invalid trials(312.65±7.46ms) showing a significant IOR effect emerged. Importantly, the interaction between target valence and cueing validity reached significance [F(1,66)=11.94,p=.001,η2=.153], which was not modified by the discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem. Further analysis indicated that for both groups, the reaction times for aggressive targets(321.99±6.82ms) on valid location was significantly faster than that for neutral targets(326.66±6.84ms) on valid location, which might reflect facilitated engagement towards aggressive information in the source of attentional capture. on the results of the amounts of IOR showed that there was a significant main effect for target valence[F（1,66）=11.94，p=.001，η2=.153], smaller IOR extent on aggressive words(-8.98±2.07ms) than that on neutral words(-14.36±2.18ms). The results of Experiment 1 suggested that the reduction of IOR effect with aggressive targets reflect facilitate engagement towards aggressive information for both groups on the role of attentional capture. In Experiment 2, mean RTs were subjected to a 2(group: fragile HSE vs. secure HSE) ×2 SOA(500,and 1000ms)×2(Target Valence: aggressive words vs. neutral words) ×2 and (Cueing validity：valid vs. invalid) mixed-factors ANOVA. There was a significant main effect of cueing validity, F（1,64）=114.57，p<.001，η2=.642, overall, the IOR was found for both cue types in overall, and response times to valid cueing condition(311.71±4.06ms) was significantly faster than invalid cueing(295.92±3.74ms), indicating significant IOR effect. Importantly, there was a significant three-way interaction of cue valence×cueing×group [F（1,64）=8.29，p=.005，η2=.115]. The simple effect analysis showed that the reaction time for aggressive words on invalid cueing condition(301.33±5.58ms) was significantly slower than that for neutral words on invalid cueing condition(295.84±5.11ms) in fragile HSE group; the reaction time for aggressive words on invalid cueing condition(291.25±5.58ms) was significantly shorter than that for neutral words on invalid cueing(295.27±5.11ms) in secure HSE group. It showed that attentional bias in fragile HSE might reflect the difficulty in disengaging from aggressive information. As for the tests on the amounts of IOR, there was a significant interaction between group and cue valence[F（1,64）=8.29，p=.005，η2=.115].Further analysis showed that, compared to secure HSE group(-18.74±2.33ms), the effect of IOR on aggressive words in fragile HSE group(-11.94±2.33ms) was much smaller; For fragile HSE group, the effect of IOR on aggressive words (-11.94±2.33)was smaller than that on neutral words(-16.73±2.26ms). The results of Experiment 2 suggested that reduction of the IOR effect with aggressive cues reflect the reluctance of fragile HSE group to disengage attention from aggressive information. The findings in this study discussed with regard to the mechanisms responsible for IOR. The attentional biases in fragile HSE are the cause of facilitated engagement towards aggressive information (attentional capture) and the difficulty in disengaging attention from aggressive information. The sensitivity on aggressive stimuli is probably the potential mechanism on aggressive behavior. Further researches should focus on the aggression intervention from a cognitive perspective.In Experiment 1,mean RTs were subjected to a 2×2×2×2 mixed analysis of variance(ANOVA) with group(fragile HSE vs. secure HSE) as the between-participants factor and SOA(500,and 1000ms),Cue Valence(aggressive words vs. neutral words) and Cueing(valid vs. invalid) as within-participants factor.IOR was found for both two cue types,a finding confirmed by the significant main effect of cueing,F（1,64）=114.57，p=0.000，η2=.642.Overall,response times to valid cueing condition(311.71±4.06ms) was significantly faster than invalid cueing(295.92±3.74ms) condition,which indicates significant IOR effect.Importantly,there was a significant three-way interaction of cue valence×cueing×group[F（1,64）=8.29，p=0.005，η2=.115]. The simple and simple effects analysis showed that the reaction time for aggressive words on invalid cueing condition(301.33±5.58ms) was significantly longer than that for neutral words on invalid cueing condition(295.84±5.11ms) in fragile HSE group;the reaction time for aggressive words on invalid cueing condition(291.25±5.58ms) was significantly shorter than that for neutral words on invalid cueing(295.27±5.11ms) in secure HSE group. It means that attentional bias in fragile HSE may reflect a difficulty in disengaging from aggressive information.As for the tests on the amounts of IOR, there was significant interaction effect between group and cue valence[F（1,64）=8.29，p=0.005，η2=.115].Further analysis showed that, compared to secure HSE group(-18.74±2.33ms),the effect of IOR on aggressive words in fragile HSE group(-11.94±2.33ms) was much smaller;For fragile HSE group,the effect of IOR on aggressive words (-11.94±2.33)was smaller than that on neutral words(-16.73±2.26ms). The results of Experiment 1 tell us that reduction of the IOR effect with aggressive cues is thought to reflect the reluctance of fragile HSE group to disengage attention from aggressive information. In Experiment 2,mean RTs were subjected to a 2×2×2×2 mixed analysis of variance(ANOVA) with group(fragile HSE vs. secure HSE) as the between-participants factor and SOA(500,and 1000ms),Target Valence(aggressive words vs. neutral words) and Cueing(valid vs. invalid) as within-participants factor.The analysis revealed a significant main effect on target valence[F（1,66）=5.11,p=0.027,η2=.072],the reaction time for aggressive words(317.50±7.12ms) was significantly faster than that for neutral words(319.48±7.05ms).There was also a main effect of cueing[F（1,66）=34.85，p=0.000，η2=.346],with participants being slower on valid(324.32±6.81ms) than on invalid trials(312.65±7.46ms),thus showing a siginificant IOR effect.Importantly,the interaction between target valence and cueing reached significance[F(1,66)=11.94,p=0.001,η2=.153],which was not modified by the discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem.A further analysis indicaed that for both groups,the reaction time for aggressive targets(321.99±6.82ms) on valid location was significantly faster than that for neutral targets(326.66±6.84ms) on valid location,which may reflect facilitated engagement towards aggressive information(attentional capture).As for the tests on the amounts of IOR, there was a significant main effect for target valence[F（1,66）=11.94，p=0.001，η2=.153],the effect of IOR on aggressive words(-8.98±2.07ms) was much smaller than that on neutral words(-14.36±2.18ms). The results of Experiment 2 tell us that reduction of the IOR effect with aggressive targets is thought to reflect facilitated engagement towards aggressive information for both groups(attentional capture). These findings are discussed with regard to the mechanisms responsible for IOR.The attentional biases in fragile HSE are due to facilitated engagement towards aggressive information(attentional capture) and a difficulty in disengaging attention from aggressive information.The sensitivity on aggressive stimuli is probably the potential mechanism on aggressive behavior.Further research will focus on the aggression intervention from a cognitive perspective. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Self-perceived Appearance Attractiveness and Selfie Posting Behaviors: A Moderated Mediation Model 2019, 42(1): 88-94.  Abstract ( )   PDF (614KB) ( )   Selfie, which refers to “a self-portrait photograph of oneself (or of oneself and other people), taken with a camera or a camera phone held at arm's length or pointed at a mirror, which is usually shared through social media”, prevails on the social Internet recently. A substantial body research revealed that online self-presentation behaviors could contribute to variety of positive consequences. Nevertheless, few studies examine the antecedent factors and little know about the underlying mechanism of selfie posting behaviors. The current study suggested three propositions. Firstly, based on the impression management theory, self-perceived appearance attractiveness may be a potential facilitator of selfie posting behaviors. Thus, the first purpose was to investigate the effect of self-perceived appearance attractiveness on selfie posting behaviors. Secondly, according to fitness-related evolutionary theory, self-perceived appearance attractiveness was associated with extraversion, which in turn was associated with selfie posting behaviors. It could be hypothesized that extraversion would mediate the relationship between self-perceived appearance attractiveness and selfie posting behaviors. In addition, exhibitionism, which refers to a disposition of attracting others' attention by presenting private lives publicly, may have a potential influence on the associations. Therefore, we also aimed to examine whether exhibitionism would have a moderating role on the direct effect of self-perceived appearance attractiveness and the indirect effect of extraversion on selfie posting behaviors. A sample of 377 students from universities in Beijing, including 255 females and 115 males was recruited to complete several self-report questionnaires, including Attractiveness Questionnaire, Extraversion Inventory, Exhibitionism Questionnaire and Selfie Posting Behaviors Questionnaire, together with their demographic information. Then, a hypothetical moderated mediation model was formulated to examine the effects of self-perceived appearance attractiveness on selfie posting behaviors and the mediating role of extraversion, as well as the moderating role of exhibitionism. The results demonstrated that: (1) After controlling for the effect of gender, self-perceived appearance attractiveness had a positive prediction on selfie posting behaviors. (2) Extraversion could partially mediate the relationship between self-perceived appearance attractiveness and selfie posting behaviors. (3) The indirect effect of which self-perceived appearance attractiveness on selfie posting behaviors through extraversion was moderated by exhibitionism. Specifically, with the increasing of the level of exhibitionism, the conditional mediating effect of extraversion changed from non-significance to significance. Taken together, the findings indicated that with a high level of exhibitionism, individuals who perceived their appearance attractive tend to behave extrovertly, leading to post more selfies on the social network. In contrast, with a low level of exhibitionism, self-perceived attractive people failed to facilitate selfie posting behaviors through extraversion. In conclusion, these results could address the issue that what works for whom, extending previous studies in some aspects. From the theoretical perspective, it was one of the first studies that combine self-assessed physical features, personality disposition and self-presentation behaviors, which could provide a constructive perspective to unravel the underlying mechanism. Meanwhile, this study found that extraversion could link self-perceived appearance attractiveness and selfie posting behaviors, and exhibitionism served as a potential moderator towards the mediating relationship, which is greatly helpful to advance the understanding of selfie posting behaviors. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effectiveness of Team Leader OCB : Testing Multilevel Models including Two-Dimension Identification as Mediators 2019, 42(1): 137-143.  Abstract ( )   PDF (521KB) ( )   The research aims to examine the effect of Team Leader OCB on Team Employee In-Role Performance and its mechanism including team employee’s Collective Team Identification and Leader Identification as mediators. A great many previous studies have verified that team leader has a significant impact on team effectiveness. Team Leader OCB is a kind of specific and positive work behavior that team leader display in job context, but few researches focused on the role that Team Leader OCB play in this research framework, also it is important and meaningful for Chinese management context, so we select Team Leader OCB as antecedent variable to investigate if it affects team effectiveness. Team Employee In-Role performance is the core of team effectiveness and is also meaningful for Chinese management context, so we select it as dependent variable to see whether Team Leader OCB affects it. If so, and how? We think that Social Identity Theory is power enough to explain this mechanism, and Team employee’s Collective Team Identification and Leader Identification are main identification forms in team work surrounding, so we take them as mediating variables at different levels to investigate how Team Leader OCB affects Team Employee In-Role Performance. By relevant theoretical derivation, we establish four multilevel hypothesis models to be verified. Investigation by supervisor-subordinate matching questionnaire were carried out to collect data, specifically, Team Employee In-Role Performance was evaluated by team leaders, Team Leader OCB, Collective Team Identification and Leader Identification were evaluated by team employees.Finally,29 team’s valid data were collected and verified available by a serious statistical analysis. Three hypothesis models were tested by these valid data, results show: Team Leader OCB has a significant positive impact on Team Employee In-Role Performance; team employee’s Collective Team Identification and Leader Identification respectively has significant cross-level mediation effect between Team Leader OCB and Team Employee In-Role Performance; team employee’s Collective Team Identification and Leader Identification have significant cross-level mediation effect between Team Leader OCB and Team Employee In-Role Performance at the same time. The research has several theoretical contributions an management inspirations. First, the research introduce a new antecedent-Team Leader OCB to examine the effect on Team Employee In-Role Performance which are both important and meaningful for Chinese management context, which is a beneficial complement to concrete content of this research paradigm and team leadership theory. Also, the research explain relevant mechanism according to social identity theory, which could enhance explanatory power of this theory in team work context. Second, based on empirical study result and relevant conclusion, team leader should act out a higher standard OCB to promote team employee’s identification of different forms, and then promote their in-role performance. Accordingly, senior manager should inspect the level of team leader’s OCB in selection process and maintain it in a higher standard by relevant management methods to promote team and organization effectiveness. The deficiency and prospect of the research are discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of Political Skills and Self - efficacy on Occupational Adaptability: the intermediary role of self-esteem Hai-Ping LIAO XiaoBin xiaoYan 2019, 42(1): 144-149.  Abstract ( )   PDF (624KB) ( )   Occupational adaptability is defined as a kind of ability that individuals can adapt to the changes and development on the career path, and can effectively solve the practical problems faced in their career path. To develop good occupational adaptability is a critical and necessary task for people to seek for a job and adapt to social life.Many scholars have studied from the aspects of role adaptation, occupational adaptation, interpersonal skills adaptation and cognitive adaptation to solve the difficulties encountered by individuals in occupational adaptation. But within academic circles, researches of occupational adaptability in the past lack the complete and clear understanding of the antecedents and consequences of occupational adaptability. Studies have shown that political skills, self-efficacy and self-esteem all play an important role in an individual's career. However, last researches have not studied in detail the relationship between them and their effects on an individual’s occupational adaptability. Therefore, this study uses a questionnaire survey to explore the impact of political skills and self-efficacy on the individual's occupational adaptability, as well as the intermediary role of self-esteem. The data of this study was from college students in a university in Chongqing. In this study, Occupational Adaptability Scale was used to measure the individual's occupational adaptability; Political Skill Inventory was used to measure the individual's political skills; General Self-Efficacy Scale was used to measure the individual's self-efficacy; Self-Esteem Scale was used to measure the individual's self-esteem. These all are self-rating scales.In this study, 501 college students were surveyed, and 492 valid questionnaires were collected. The effective recovery rate was 98.2%. 123 boys, accounting for 25%; girls 369, accounting for 75%. This study uses SPSS 21.0 and Amos17.0 to analyze data collected by questionnaire survey. First, this study conducted a regression analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire, the results shows that: (1) Political skills have positive effect on individuals’ occupational adaptability. Individuals with high political skills can be sensitive to interpersonal relationships and rules in organizations, timely adjust their own behavior and take action to exert positive influence on others, get more support and cooperation, thereby enhancing the ability to adapt to occupation. (2) Self-efficacy positively predicts career adaptability. Individuals with a high degree of self-efficacy can have more confidence and be more hardworking, and can react to a new workplace environment in a more positive and effective mode of thinking and emotional response. Therefore they have a higher vocational adaptability. In order to further study the influence mechanism of political skills and self-efficacy on occupational adaptability, this study introduces self-esteem as an intermediary variable into the structural equation model. The results show that self-esteem plays a dual intermediary role between political skill and career adaptability, and also between self-efficacy and career adaptability. In a word, this research has successfully explored the factors influencing the occupational adaptability of individuals through empirical research and enriched the research results of the predecessors. However, the scope of sampling in this study only selected undergraduates from universities in Chongqing for testing, which may affect the generalization of the conclusion of this study. Future research can extend the scope of the study to graduates and new employees to study their job hunting, entry, occupation adaptation. Second, the present study focused more on the relationship between variables at the individual level of college students. Future research may consider the impact of organizational and school-level variables. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Career Adaptability and Turnover: The Mediating and Moderating Role of Career Success Xiao-Li SHU 2019, 42(1): 95-101.  Abstract ( )   PDF (922KB) ( )   Career adaptability is a psychosocial resource that can cope with current and anticipated vocational tasks, occupational transitions, work traumas in their occupational roles, and it raises new concern in the field of career psychology in recent years. How to reduce turnover has became a major concern for the managers. Many empirical researches have proved that career adaptability can predict turnover intention, however, the result was not the same. Maybe there is not a straight-line relationship between them, which means their relationship is affected by mediating variables or moderating variables. Until now, few studies have been made. Based on previous studies, career success is also closely related to turnover intention. Therefore, in the current study, we hypothesized that career adaptability affected turnover intention which was mediated by perceived internal marketability and perceived external marketability. Besides, career satisfaction played a moderating role between career adaptability and turnover intention. A total sample of 193 employees from 11 different enterprises participated in the study, with 82 females and 111 males. The questionnaires included career adaptability questionnaire, career success questionnaire, and turnover intention questionnaire. All the questionnaires were well-established in the literature. SPSS23.0 and lisrel8.8 were adopted to perform a series of statistical analyses, and Andrew Hayes’ PROCESS macro for SPSS was employed to examine the moderation and mediation model, and Johnson -Neyman technique was used to quantify the moderation effect of career satisfaction． The results indicated that: (1) After controlling on gender, education background and working-age, Both perceived internal marketability and perceived external marketability played the role of mediator in relationship between career adaptability and turnover intention in our multiple mediation model. Career adaptability not only directly affected turnover intention, but also reduced turnover intention by increasing perceived internal marketability or decreasing perceived external marketability. (2) Career satisfaction moderated the direct relationship between career adaptability and turnover intention. It also moderated the mediated path through perceived external marketability. Only when the employee's career satisfaction reached the middle or above level, their direct and indirect effects were both stronger. When the level of career satisfaction was low, this effect was not significant because employees' career satisfaction was lower and their turnover intention was all higher. Therefore，the author concluded that perceived internal marketability and perceived external marketability were both played mediating role, and career satisfaction played a moderating role in the relationship between career adaptability and turnover intention. This study had three major contributions. First, the study provided a more comprehensive and elaborative interpretation to understand the mechanisms how and when career success affected turnover intention. Second, the findings provided a theoretical and empirical basis for other complex research, and therefore, it could expand related research. Last but not the least, this research could help to reduce turnover in the future. Managers should pay more attention to the employees with low career adaptability and career satisfaction. Then, the limitation of this study could not be ignored. The turnover is complicated. Career adaptability and career success could not fully explain it, thus this issue should be further studied in the future. Related Articles | Metrics

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Reducing Impulse Buying by Unconscious Goal Priming: the Regulating Effect of Individual’s Recent Goal State Jian-Rui DING Zhi-Ling ZOU 2019, 42(1): 130-136.  Abstract ( )   PDF (516KB) ( )   Impulse buying is always accompanied by many negative outcomes to individuals and society, yet there were few studies exploring how to reduce it. Previous studies were conducted from the perspective of enhancing self-control ability to control impulse buying, which showed limitations in its intervention method. Unconscious goal priming (UGP) refers to activating individuals’ mental representation related to goal in an unconscious way. Due to its ease of implementation and similar effects as the conscious goal priming, UGP has been used for diet controlling in obese people. However, there is no evidence about whether it can reduce impulse buying effectively. In this current study, we aimed to examine the effect of unconscious goal priming to reduce the impulse buying for individuals who have the goal of saving money and those who do not have the goal of saving money. 86 college students (43 with recent saving goal and 43 without recent saving goal) participated in this experiment. The experiment contained generally two parts: the target activation stage and the target pursuit stage. In the first stage (target activating), the goal of saving money was unconsciously activated through the priming task. All participants were randomly assigned to the priming group (the priming words flashed in the priming task was related to money-saving goal) or control group (the words flashed in the priming task was not related to money-saving goal). In the second stage (target pursuing), participants were required to complete a simulated shopping task in which they were instructed to imagine an impulsive shopping situation. The amount they would buy was recorded as a measurement of their impulse buying behavior. The main results of the present research are as follows: there was a significant interaction between “priming” (Priming Vs. Control group) and “individual’s goal state” (With Vs. Without money-saving goal), F (1,79) = 4.117, p < .05, η2 = .050. For individuals who have the goal of saving money, people in the priming group showed less impulse buying behavior than those in the non-priming group, F(1,79) = 4.688，p < .05，η2 = .056; However, for those who do not have the goal of saving money, there was no significant difference in impulse buying behavior between the priming and no-priming group, F(1,79) = 0.455，p > .05. Our results revealed that unconscious goal priming could only reduce the impulse buying behavior of individuals who have the goal of saving money, while showing no significant effect on individuals who do not have the goal of saving money. The current study confirmed that unconscious goal priming can reduce impulse buying, but the priming effect was regulated by individual’s goal state, which was in agreement with the findings of unconscious goal priming in the field of diet controlling. Importantly, this current research first attempted to reduce impulse buying from the perspective of acting on the motivation of self-control rather than directly enhancing individuals’ self-control abilities. Our findings suggested that unconscious goal priming has the prospect to become a simple and convenient intervention for reducing impulse buying behavior, especially for those with money-saving goals. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Self-objectification on cognitive performance: Status Quo, Mechanism and Prospect Lo-Yiu TONG 2019, 42(1): 157-162.  Abstract ( )   PDF (303KB) ( )   Self-objectified women internalize an observer’s perspective as a primary view of their physical selves. This internalized perspective on self can lead to habitual body and appearance monitoring, which can increase women’s opportunities for shame and anxiety, reduce opportunities for peak motivational states, and diminish awareness of internal bodily states. Accumulations of such experience can lead further into bad consequences. Early studies have focused on the bad consequences of self-objectification on mental health. Few studies have focused on the impact of self-objectification on cognitive performance. Csikszentmihalyi proposed an idea of ”flow”— a state in which a person stretches to the limit to accomplish something difficult and worthwhile. Objectification, therefore, to be perceived as detrimental to cognitive performance, in which concentration is required and cognitive resources need to be garnered. Thus, it can be seen that objectification is an important research direction in the field of cognitive performance. In the present article, we reviewed the related studies on self-objectification and cognitive performance. First, we summarized the studies on relations of self-objectification and cognitive performance. Then, we reviewed the theoretical explanations of the effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance. Finally, future research directions were prospected. The research status of self-objectification with cognitive performance: In the manipulation of —termed the “swimsuit-sweater paradigm”, many studies have showed that, both male and female participants in the swimsuit condition experienced a state of self-objectification, and being in a state of self-objectification can have deleterious effects on math cognitive performance. Due to math test may induce a state of “stereotype threat”, it can be seen as a plausible alternative explanation for the performance decrements demonstrated in a state of self-objectification. Some other researchers used a cognitive task that has no gender stereotypes to investigate the influence of self-objectification on Cognitive performance. But the conclusions of the studies were not consistent. Some studies have demonstrated an effect of the swimsuit-sweater manipulation on performance using measures of Stroop color naming task, but some other studies using measures of Gestalt Completion Test, Non- sense Syllogisms Test, Surface Development Test have failed to demonstrate the effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance. A few researchers used less obtrusive situations to manipulation self-objectification, such as exposure participants to an objectifying environment filled with items designed to make participants appearance salient, made appearance-based compliments to the participants, took pictures of the participants, showed sexual— objectification video to the participants. In these studies, the effects of self-objectification on cognitive performance were not consistent. In summary, although there are evidences that trait self-objectification is related to the experience of “flow”, state self-objectification is related to the impairment of cognitive performance (mathematical cognitive performance, attention cognitive performance). However, some studies failed to demonstrate the damage effect of state self-objectification on cognitive performance (well-formed complement, meaningless syllogism, spatial cognition, etc.), or only when trait self-objectification interacted with state self-objectification would have damage to cognitive performance. The theoretical explanations of the effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance: First, self-objectification is theorized to result in a change in visual perspective. There were evidence showed when a person objectifying the self takes a third-person perspective, viewing the self through the eyes of the other would lead to an increase in women's self-objectification. Second, self-objectification is theorized to lead to the experience of negative self-conscious emotions, such as shame, anxiety, and depression. People with those negative self-conscious emotions have to distract cognitive resources to manage with that, and thus result in performance decrements. Finally, when women self-objectify they are thought to be actively focus their attention on monitoring their appearance or comparing their appearance to cultural standards. Those monitoring activities can cause their mental resources to be consumed, and resources used for other activities are limited. Although there are three possible theoretical explanations of the effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance, but no research has directly proved that individuals can cause cognitive impairment in that three path. The future research direction: Firstly, future research needs to enrich the manipulation of self-objectification in different ways, especially the more general and everyday situation of objectification manipulation. Secondly, future studies should examine the mechanism of self-objectification on cognitive performance through experiments. Thirdly, future studies should investigate different cognitive performances, and pay attention to cumulative effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance, and examine the performance of the same cognitive task through different measurement methods. Fourthly, future studies have to pay attention to the cumulative effect of self-objectification on cognitive performance. Early studies on objectification and cognitive performance adopt experimental manipulation methods to test the impact on cognitive performance by causing the state self-objectification of participants. However, some studies have found that trait self-objectification has an effect on cognitive performance. Thus, further research needs to examine whether self-objectification has a cumulative effect on cognitive performance. Related Articles | Metrics

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Joint Modeling for Response Times and Response Accuracy in Computer-based Multidimensional Assessments Peida ZHAN 2019, 42(1): 170-178.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1903KB) ( )   With the advance in computerized tests, item response times (RTs) collection has become a routine activity in many large-scale tests. As a result, besides the traditional item response accuracy (RA) data, an additional source of information is available to test developers and data-analysts. Recorded RT may help to improve test design, aberrant response behavior detection, and item selection in computerized adaptive tests. For example, when respondents are not motivated in a low-stakes test, they may respond to items in a speeded manner, such responding behavior may not be easily identified only based on RA. Among several proposed RT modeling approaches, the hierarchical modeling framework (van der Linden, 2007) is one of the most flexible tools to explain the relationship between response speed and accuracy. This framework is generalized enough to integrate available measurement models for RA and RT. Currently, however, almost all RT research only employs the unidimensional item response theory (IRT) models as a measurement model for RA. The unidimensional IRT models only provide a single overall ability score which may not meet the needs of providing multidimensional analysis and assessment results. To provide multidimensional analysis results with collateral information in RT, this study proposed a joint responses and times multidimensional Rasch model (JRT-MRM) for fitting RT and RA data simultaneously. In the JRT-MRM model, the multidimensional Rasch model (Adams, Wilson, & Wang, 1997) was employed as the measurement model and the lognormal RT model (van der Linden, 2006) was employed as the RT model, respectively. Model parameter estimation was explored using the Bayesian MCMC method via JAGS (Version 4.2.0) (Plummer, 2015). The PISA 2012 and 2015 computer-based mathematics data were analyzed. For simplicity, only the PISA 2012 data was introduced and mentioned here. This dataset contains 1582 participants’ dichotomous RA and log RT data to 10 items. According to the 2012 PISA mathematics assessment framework (OECD, 2013) and the log-file databases for released computerized mathematics items, four mathematical content knowledge dimensions were assessed, namely, (θ1) change and relationships, (θ2) quantity, (θ3) space and shape, and (θ4) uncertainty and data. The test structure is a between-item multidimensional structure (Adams et al., 1997). To evaluate the advantages of introducing the information of RT (or the consequences of ignoring the information of RT) in the analysis, the JRT-MRM and the MRM were used to fit the data. For item parameters, the correlation between the estimated item intercept/easiness parameters of two models was 0.9997. In the JRT-MRM, the estimated item time-intensity parameters were ranged from 3.740 to 4.779. More importantly, the standard errors (the standard deviation of the posterior distribution) of the estimated item intercept/easiness parameters of the JRT-MRM were generally smaller than those of the MRM, which means considering RT in the analysis would lead to a more precise estimation of item parameters. In the JRT-MRM, the estimated correlation among item intercept/easiness parameters and time-intensity parameters is –0.422, which was consistent with previous studies that the more difficult items need more time to be solved (e.g., Fox & Marianti, 2016; van der Linden, 2006; 2007). In addition, for person parameters, the correlation between the each estimated latent ability of two models was 0.989, 0.997, 0.985, and 0.953, respectively. In the JRT-MRM, the estimated person speed parameters were ranged from –0.913 to 2.910. The estimated correlation between θ1 and person speed was –0.351, between θ2 and person speed was –245, between θ3 and person speed was –0.365, and between θ4 and person speed was –487, which means moderate negative correlations exist between the multidimensional abilities and the person speed parameter. Although this result is not consistent with common sense that the more able respondents tended to work faster, some studies also have reported a negative correlation between the ability and speed parameters (e.g., Klein Entink, Fox et al., 2009; van der Linden & Fox, 2015). As a low-stakes test, PISA has limited for individual respondents (Huff & Goodman, 2007). Thus, a reasonable explanation could be that low ability respondents lack of motivation in taking the test (Wise & Kong, 2005), which led to shorter RT and a greater number of incorrect responses than high ability respondents. Overall, the proposed JRT-MRM works well in real data analysis and implements the analysis of RT data. The results indicated that incorporating RT in the multidimensional Rasch model would result in more accurate estimation of the model parameters and provide a chance and condition to data-analysts to using RT information to make further decisions and interventions. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Ability Overestimation and Ability Underestimation of the Examinee under the Weighted-Score Logistic Model Yun MEI Xiao-Zhu Jian 2019, 42(1): 163-169.  Abstract ( )   PDF (838KB) ( )   　Under the weighted-score logistic model (WSLM), which is proposed by Jian, Dai, & Dai（2016）. On the basis of the item emphases of the polytomously scored item, the WSLM model adds the weighted-score parameters into the dichotomous logistic model. Because of the dichotomous model have five forms at least. Similarly, the weighted-Score Logistic model also have four forms, including the one-parameter weighted-Score Logistic model, the two-parameter weighted-Score Logistic model, the three-parameter weighted-Score Logistic model including c parameter, the three-parameter weighted-Score Logistic model including γ parameter, the four-parameter weighted-Score Logistic model. 　There are response disturbances such as random guessing, carelessness, transcription error in the educational tests. In the paper and pencil testes or computerized adaptive testing, the aberrant responses such as careless errors and lucky guesses would cause significant ability estimation biases in the past researches. Mislevy & Bock (1982) proposed the Biweight estimator, and made comparison between the Biweight estimator and maximum likelihood estimator. Results showed that the Biweight estimator could typically reduce Biases, thereby dispel measurement disturbances. And three-parameter Logistic IRT model and four parameter Logistic IRT model, Huber robust estimation, and the other methods have therefore been proposed to address the response disturbance, including random guessing, carelessness, etc.. 　The paper comparisons the four models to robustify ability estimates by an example of a test. The four models compared including two-parameter WSLM, three-parameter WSLM contains c parameter, three-parameter WSLM contains γ parameter, four-parameter WSLM. Second, three simulation studies in three test cases are presented respectively, with the aim of comparing four approaches, including 2PM-MLE, Biweight estimation, Huber estimation, 4PM-Robust estimation. The hypothetical test instrument contains 34 items, with difficulty thresholds b~ N(0,1), and log (a) ~ N(0,1). The 35th item with difficulty thresholds range from -4.0 to 4.0. The ability of the middle-ability examinee is estimated by the responses on the 34 items of the basic test under two-parameter logistic model, and the ability estimation is seen as the reference value for the other three models. 　Based on the two-parameter WSLM, the ability of the examinees will be overestimated when there exist guessing phenomenon on the difficult items; Meanwhile, the ability of the examinees will be underestimated when there exist sleeping phenomenon on the easy items. The three-parameter WSLM, which contains c parameter, the overestimation phenomenon would be rectified. However, the underestimation phenomenon still exists when the examinees miss the easy items. Secondly, The three-parameter WSLM, which contains γ parameter, the underestimation phenomenon would be rectified well when the examinees miss the easy items. But the overestimation phenomenon still exists when the examinees get the difficult items. Thirdly, the four-parameter WSLM, which contains c, γ parameter, the underestimation phenomenon would be rectified well when the examinees miss the easy items, and the overestimation phenomenon would also be rectified well when the low-ability examinees get the difficult items luckily. So, the examinee can get the ability robust estimation under the four-parameter WSLM when there exists response disturbances such as random guessing and carelessness error n the tests. Related Articles | Metrics

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Using hierarchical consistency indexes to evaluate the size of the noise in the 0-1 response data of cognitive diagnostic test Shu-Liang DING 2019, 42(1): 179-186.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1078KB) ( )   Assessing the performance of cognitive diagnosis model (CDM) in the simulation experiments, the size of the noise in the response data is very important experimental condition. Due to the noise being hidden, it brings difficulties to choose corresponding CDM in applications. In this article, the modified hierarchical consistency index (MHCI) and new hierarchical consistency index (NHCI) are used to evaluate the size of the noise in the 0-1 response data of cognitive diagnostic test. In order to predict the size of the noise in the response data, Monte Carlo simulation experiment was carried out to find quantitative regularity between the indexes (MHCI, NHCI) and the noise. Suppose that the reduced Q matrix (Qr) is with K-row and m-column and the test Q matrix Qt is pile of L-matrix Qr, that is Qt=(Qr,...,Qr), where L=1, 2, 3, 4, respectively. And L influences the test length essentially. Experiment investigated the changes of the mean values of MHCI(NHCI) regulation with different attribute structures(linear, convergent, divergent, independent model) under the condition of different number of attributes(5, 6, 7)×different number of Qr (L=1, 2, 3, 4)×different size of the noise(slippage belongs in {0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05}). For independent model simulation experiment was carried out with only 5 attributes and for the other K=6, 7 the amount of computing is too heavy to implement. This means the number of attributes in independent model is constant. First, in order to get quantitative regularity between the indexes（MHCI, NHCI）and the noise, through stepwise regression to build the regression equations with mean value of the indexes as the dependent variable, slippage ratio, the number of Qr and the number of attributes as the independent variable. Experimental results show that the slip ratio and the number of Qr will significantly affect the mean value of the indexes, slippage ratio is the main influence factor; the greater the slippage ratio or the larger times of tests, the smaller the mean value of indexes. Number of attributes in most cases can enter the regression equations, but small values of the effect generally. No matter what kind of attribute structures, the two factor regression models have good explanation rate, especially for NHCI index, its rate is above 90%. There is a stable and significant quantitative regularity between slip ratio and index, which provides a way to predict slippage ratio. Then, in order to predict the size of the noise, through stepwise regression to build the regression equations with slippage ratio as the dependent variable, mean value of the indexes, the number of Qr and the number of attributes as the independent variable. As well as the measurable independent variables of mean value of indexes, the number of Qr and etc. to predict implicit slip ratio, the model of regression equation were significantly. The experimental results show that the linear model is similar to the convergent model, mean value of MHCI(NHCI), the number of Qr in the regression models have bigger effect. These two kinds of models of the first factor variance explained rate has more than 65%, two factors explain the rate of close to 89%. The results for divergence and independent are similar, mean value of NHCI, the number of Qr in the regression models have bigger effect. These two kinds of models of the first factor variance explained rate has close to 83%, two factors explain the rate of more than 92%. In conclusion, such as the experimental conditions of similar cases, using the above two factor regression models to estimate the slippage ratio can achieve good effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparison of Bifactor CAT Item Selection Criteria for Polytomous Items 2019, 42(1): 187-193.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1120KB) ( )   Bifactor model assumes that the test involves a general factor and multiple group factors. Numerous analyses on the structures of psychological trait measurement, school education survey, medical survey, and diagnostic testing have shown that the bifactor model could well represent the construct structures of the tests, surveys, or scales, and it has shown better model-data fit than other competing models (e.g. unidimensional, higher-order, and correlation models). when the abilities are assumed to be orthogonal in the bifactor model, the bifactor dimension reduction method has proved to be can reduces the multidimensional integration to multiple 2-dimensional integreations, which greatly simplifies the computation of parameter estimation (Gibbons & Hedeker, 1992; Gibbons, et al., 2007). The bifactor CAT has proved to be a practical approach that could substantialy reduce the burden of respondents while increasing testing efficiency (Gibbons, et al., 2007). However, the number of dimensions in mutidimensional CAT usually becomes an obstacle to the application of many famous item selection method, especially for the polytomous items. Specially, this study focus on the formula of information matrix forpolytomous items and how to simplify the computation of item selection method using the dimension reduction method. First, the Fisher information for bifactor grade response model was derived; then, the dimension reduction method was applied to the computation of item selection methods including the posterior weighted Fisher D-optimality method, the posterior weighted Kull-Leilber information method, the continuous entropy method, and the mutual information method; last, these methods were then compared with simulated data under three different bifactor pattern designs, using the original D-optimality method as the baseline. We conducted Monte Carlo simulation using an MATLAB program (R2010a) to wrote the CAT code and evaluate different item selection methods in terms of the correlation between real and estimated abilities, root mean squared error, absolute deviation, and Euclidean distance. The results showed that: (1) the information of the bifactor graded response model can be easily obtained and it is the generation of the information of the 2-parameter logistic model; (2) simulation results showed that for each item selection method, the correlation in high bifactor pattern is the highest, the root mean square and the absolute is lowest; (3) under the same simulation condition, the mutual information item selection method produced the highest average correlation of real ability and estimated ability, lowest root mean square, absolute bias and euclidean distance among all the item selection methods while the Posterior Kullback-Leibler method performed the worst according to these indice; (4) the PDO, CEM and DO methods produce very similar results when fixing the test condition; (5)the euclidean distance of all the methods from the begin to the end showed that their difference become significant when the test length is larger than 20 items. In conclusion, the derivation showed that dimension reduction method can be easily use to simplify the computation of item selection methods including PDO, PKL, CEM and MI. This method can simplify the multidimensional integration contain in each method to multiple 2-dimensional integreations. The simulation results further showed that when the between the discrimination parameters of the group factors and those of the general factor are smaller, estimates of the group factors become more accurate and vice versa for the estimates of the general factor. Under the same test, the CEM method performed the best in test precision while the PKL performed the worst and all other three methods performed similarly. Some problems like controlling the exposure rate, meeting the content constraint and item selection for mix-form test valued to be explore further. Related Articles | Metrics

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Study on CD-CAT Based on the Perspective of Mixed CDMs Tu Dong-Bo 2019, 42(1): 194-201.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1164KB) ( )   Cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing (CD-CAT) combines the advantages of both cognitive diagnosis and CAT, which can make adaptive diagnosis for different individuals and provide more detailed diagnostic information on the knowledge competence of the examinees. Currently, CD-CAT has been a promising research area and gained more and more attention. The first step in the implementation of CD-CAT is to build a high quality item bank, and one difficulty that practitioners face is that of how to select the most appropriate cognitive diagnostic model (CDM) from such a large number of models. A wide array of CDMs have been developed based on different assumptions, for example, some reduced CDMs include the Deterministic Inputs, Noisy And Gate (DINA) model, the Deterministic Inputs, Noisy “Or” Gate (DINO; Templin & Henson, 2006) model, the Additive Cognitive Diagnostic Model (ACDM; de la Torre, 2011), the Linear Logistic Model (LLM) and the Reduced Reparametrized Unified Model (RRUM; Hartz, 2002). Apart from these reduced CDMs, some generalized models have also been developed, including the generalized DINA (G-DINA; de la Torre, 2011) model, the general diagnostic model (GDM; von Davier, 2005), and the log-linear CDM (LCDM; Henson, Templin, & Willse, 2009). Compared with the reduced CDMs, generalized CDMs are more complex and require a larger sample size to yield accurate estimates. In addition, compared with the complex generalized CDMs model, using reduced models can improve the accuracy of diagnostic test and may lead to more straightforward and meaningful interpretations. However, almost of all the research and application of CD-CAT has been conducted with the using only one CDM to estimate the item parameters. Analysis of real test data indicated that no single reduced model can be expected to satisfactorily fit all the items. The Wald test was developed as an item-level statistical test to examine whether the G-DINA model can be replaced by a reduced CDM without losing model data fit significantly in order to select an appropriate CDM for each item. The study developed a new selecting model method, namely, mixed models method, to the construction of item bank in CD-CAT. To explore the effectiveness of the mixed model method, three simulation experiments were conducted. The study 1 was aimed to investigate the efficiency of the mixed model method in CD-CAT considering a variety of factors, namely, item selection strategy (SHE and MPWKL), the test length (10, 15, 20 and 25). The number of attributes was fixed to K = 7. An item bank of 360 items was simulated with the highest and lowest probabilities of success, P(1) and P(0), were generated from uniform distributions with U(0.7,0.95) and U (0.05,0.3), respectively. The purpose of study 2 was to compare the efficiency of CD-CAT with the use of G-DINA, DINA, DINO, ACDM, LLM and RRUM model to analyze data generated from mixed model. The last study was to apply the mixed model method to an empirical data. Simulations results showed that the mixed CDMs can be used in the construction of CD-CAT and can improve both the validity and reliability of the test scores from a CD-CAT program. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Psychological Demand Theory of Community Corrections — Based on the Grounded Theory 2019, 42(1): 237-244.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1018KB) ( )   Community corrections are a special group, coming into being with the establishment of community correction system. In China, although researches on the social support, social exclusion and social integration are concerned about the psychological problems, they put more emphasis on the results of community correction system than community corrections. In practice, it is necessary to pay attention to its psychological health and psychological needs from the perspective of community corrections themselves. This is not only beneficial to promote the work of community correctional staffs, but also?conducive to community corrections return to our society smoothly. All these could reduce reoffending rate, maintain social stability and reflect the advantage of our system. This study is based on the qualitative research paradigm, applying the Grounded Theory to study the psychological needs of community corrections in the process of social integration. On the basis of literature review and field survey, this study completes the written interview, adopting the method of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. Taken 20 community corrections from Chongqing community as the interview object, it conducted a semi-structured interviews，taking the mode of one-on-one, and then selected 15 samples after the selection of transcript release. In the later stage, it takes advantages of the Nvivo11 to analyze the transcript release and extract the theoretical model of community corrections’ psychological needs. It could draw the conclusion as follows: The psychological needs of community corrections include three categories: accepting the reality, maintaining self-image, recovery and reconstruction. Accepting the reality includes accepting the verdict, Catharsis pressure adjustment, and facing reality. Maintaining self-image includes removing the stigma of mental health, protecting the sense of self value, presenting positive self pursuit, and being stuck with something. Recovery and reconstruction include the restoration and reconstruction of basic needs, rehabilitation and reconstruction of relational needs, self-adjustment, and the pursuit of self value. Three requirements of community corrections have stages of psychological process and a progressive relationship in the regression of social and mental health level. The first demand is the acceptance of reality; the second demand is the maintenance of self-image and the third demand is to return to normal. When the first demand is at an advantage, community corrections pay more attention to events and the past. While the second demand is at an advantage, they will have greater motivation to pay attention to the interpersonal interaction. And when the third need is at an advantage, they focus on the present and the future. However, these three major needs are not completely separated. They can exist at the same time, but only one or two of them will be the dominant needs. It could safely offer proposals as following: putting forward the effective suggestions to community corrections and their family, the staff of community corrections and psychological workers according to demands of the three stages. And it could be summed up as “understanding things, accepting persons, and better development”. It also could safely draw a conclusion of psychological demand about community corrections with Chinese characteristics, providing a basis for enriching China's policy of social correction. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Comparative Study on the Development Characteristics of Oral and Written Narrative between Deaf Students and Hearing Students in Chinese 2019, 42(1): 230-236.  Abstract ( )   PDF (490KB) ( )   Narrative is also called storytelling, which refers to the ability of producing a coherent language without context. Narrative can be divided into oral narrative and written narrative. Due to hearing impairment, the development of deaf students’ language is relatively poor. Narrative is often used as an intervention method for language rehabilitation and development. Deaf students’ narrative is widely concerned. Previous studies have revealed that both deaf students’ oral narratives and written narratives are inferior to normally hearing peers, but the comparison of the two narratives has not been widely concerned. The present study was aimed to examine the developmental characteristics of deaf students’ oral narrative and written narrative, and make a comparison with normally hearing students, revealing the specificity of deaf students’ narrative development. A total of 87 elementary school students were adopted in the study, including 42 deaf students and 45 normally hearing students. Three factors mixed design were used: 3(Grade: Grade3, Grade 4, Grade 5)×2(Group: Deaf students, Normally hearing students)×2(Modality: Oral narrative, Written narrative). Children were asked to conduct the oral narrative first and then carry out the written narrative. The narratives were analyzed through macrostructure and microstructure, and the microstructural device contained three indexes: Lexical diversity, lexical density and mean length of utterance. The results showed that there was no significant difference between the two groups on the macrostructure. However, the results revealed a significant grade difference, a group difference and a modality difference in microstructure. There was a significant interaction between the grade and the group in terms of lexical diversity and lexical density, deaf students and normally hearing students show a difference in grade development. In addition, in the lexical diversity index, the interaction between the grade and the modality was significant. For children in Grade 3 and Grade 4, the performance of written narratives was significantly better than oral narrative. For children in Grade 5, there were no significant differences between oral narrative and written narrative. In the lexical density index, there was a significant interaction between the group and the modality. For the normally hearing students, there were no significant differences between oral narrative and written narrative. For the deaf students, the lexical density of oral narrative was significantly higher than that of written narrative. Based on the above findings, the conclusions were:(1)Regardless of oral narrative or written narrative, deaf students and normally hearing students behaved fairly in macrostructure, but deaf students performed poorly in microstructure. (2)In macrostructure and the mean length of utterance, both deaf and normally hearing students’ written narrative scores were higher than oral narrative. (3)In terms of lexical density, deaf students behaved similarly in oral and written narratives, but the deaf students’ lexical density showed deficiency in oral narrative. (4) According to the lexical diversity and the lexical density, there were differences in the developmental characteristics between deaf students and normally hearing students. The results of the study have important implications for the narrative teaching of deaf students. Related Articles | Metrics

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Early Prediction of Autistic Children by Using the Gap-Overlap Paradigm 2019, 42(1): 223-229.  Abstract ( )   PDF (472KB) ( )   Abstract Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder characterized by impairments in social communication and repetitive or restricted behaviors. Atypical attention, while not a diagnostic feature, has usually been considered to be associated with ASD. Recent studies have suggested that attentional abnormalities play a primary role in the etiology of autism. Visual orienting is comprised of three successive attentional processes which are disengagement, shifting and engagement. When individuals orientate themselves to other stimulus, disengagement is needed firstly from the currently fixated object, which is evidenced usually by the time taken to initiate their saccades to the next target. Then, shifting means the movement process of visual attention. After this process, individuals fixate on the new object to engage their attention to the new stimulus. The gap-overlap paradigm is a classic experimental paradigm aimed to study attentional processes. In 1967, Saslow created this paradigm for the first time, in which two or three task conditions were included. On gap task, the central stimulus appears in the center for a variable duration. After 200-250ms temporal gap, a target appears in the peripheral field. On overlap task, the central stimulus remains on the screen throughout the trials. On null task, the central stimulus disappears at the onset of the target without a temporal gap. In all of the three tasks, time needed to move the saccade to the target after its onset is analyzed. Thus, gap task or null task reveals the process of attentional shift, and the overlap task reflects the process of both attentional disengagement and shift. Attention is our window to the world, an early-developing disorder of attention might have a far-reaching effect on cognitive development(Fischer et al., 2014). Attentional disengagement is one of the most widely discussed attentional components in autism. In most cases, the gap-overlap paradigm reveals the abnormality of attentional disengagement in autism compared to the control group. More importantly, in several prospective studies, attentional disengagement deficits are amongst the earliest markers in infants or toddlers at-risk of autism, and are predictive of their later diagnosis. The developmental changes are most pronounced in individuals later diagnosed with ASD who need longer saccadic reaction time (SRT) to disengage from the central stmulus. This disengagement difficulties tend to exist in children or adults with autism, as evidenced by longer SRT compared to the typically developing . The prospective study in autism using the paradigm is particularly extensive abroad. As apparently indicated by the previous studies, gap-overlap paradigm is very appropriate to examine the attentional processes in autism and thus predict the development of ASD in early life. In future studies, investigating how the atypical disengagement results in the autistic symptom during development is a crucial question. Only based on this, can the effective intervention be applied to prevent the occurrence of ASD. However, domestic research focuses peculiarly less on this issue. In order to promote the application of gap-overlap paradigm in the study of autistic children in China, this paper systematically introduces the principles, measures and design of this paradigm, as well as its application in attentional research in autism. Some important methodological questions are also discussed in the end of this paper. In future studies, more attention should be paid to the use of gap-overlap paradigm for predicting infants with ASD. By combining eye tracking and electrophysiological or brain imaging techniques, it is hoped that the deeper causes of autism in terms of the attentional process will be revealed. The gap-overlap paradigm is a common experimental paradigm to study the visual attentional characteristics. In 1967, Saslow used the paradigm in his study for the first time. A typical trial of the paradigm includes two tasks: gap tasks and overlap tasks. In gap tasks, the central stimulus appears in the center of a visual display for a variable duration. The central stimulus then disappeared is followed by a 200-250ms temporal gap before a target appears in the peripheral fields. In overlap tasks, the central stimulus remains on the screen during the presentation of the peripheral target. A modified gap-overlap paradigm also includes two tasks: overlap tasks and null tasks. In null tasks the central stimulus disappear at the onset time of the peripheral target without a temporal gap. Overlap tasks are the same as the above. Some studies also use all three tasks to reveal attention characteristics of ASD. Visual orienting is comprised of three successive components of spatial attention. Firstly, disengagement of attention is the breaking of visual attention from a fixated stimulus; Secondly, shifting attention is the movement of visual attention from a previously fixated stimulus to a new target; Thirdly, engagement of attention refers to visual fixation on the new target. Gap tasks or null tasks reveal the process of attentional shift, and the overlap tasks reveal the process of attentional disengagement. Attention is our window to the world, an early-developing disorder of attention might have a far-reaching impact on development. Attentional disengagement is one of the most widely discussed attentional components of autism. Impaired attentional disengagement is a prime suspect in the etiology of autism which can explain many symptoms of ASD. The gap- overlap paradigm reveals the abnormality of autism in the attentional disengagement. Attentional disengagement deficits are amongst the earliest markers in at-risk siblings of children with autism (high-risk by virtue of having an elder sibling diagnosed with ASD) , and are predictive of a later diagnosis. The developmental changes were most pronounced in the group later diagnosed with ASD who have longer saccadic reaction time. In numerous studies, Compared with those of normal children, the attentional disengagment of the autistic children are abnormal. The prospective study of attentional disengagement in autism using the gap-overlap paradigm is particularly extensive abroad. However, our country has?peculiarly little research in this area. In order to promote the application of gap-overlap paradigm in the study of autistic children in China，this paper systematically introduces the program, the principle, the main use index and other contents of gap-overlap paradigm. The function of the gap-overlap paradigm in the prediction of infants with autism and the methodological problems in use are also discussed. In future studies, we should pay attention to the use of gap-overlap paradigm for predicting infants with autism; By the combination of eye movement research and electrophysiological or brain imaging techniques, it is hoped that the deeper causes of autism will be revealed. The gap-overlap paradigm is a common experimental paradigm to study the visual attentional characteristics. In 1967, Saslow used the paradigm in his study for the first time. A typical trial of the paradigm includes two tasks: gap tasks and overlap tasks. In gap tasks, the central stimulus appears in the center of a visual display for a variable duration. The central stimulus then disappeared is followed by a 200-250ms temporal gap before a target appears in the peripheral fields. In overlap tasks, the central stimulus remains on the screen during the presentation of the peripheral target. A modified gap-overlap paradigm also includes two tasks: overlap tasks and null tasks. In null tasks the central stimulus disappear at the onset time of the peripheral target without a temporal gap. Overlap tasks are the same as the above. Visual orienting is comprised of three successive components of spatial attention. Firstly, disengagement of attention is the breaking of visual attention from a fixated stimulus; Secondly, shifting attention is the movement of visual attention from a previously fixated stimulus to a new target; Thirdly, engagement of attention refers to visual fixation on the new target. Gap tasks or null tasks reveal the process of attentional shift, and the overlap tasks reveal the process of attentional disengagement. Attention is our window to the world, an early-developing disorder of attention might have a far-reaching impact on development. Attentional disengagement is one of the most widely discussed attentional components of autism. Impaired attentional disengagement is a prime suspect in the etiology of autism which can explain many symptoms of ASD. The gap- overlap paradigm reveals the abnormality of autism in the attentional disengagement. Attentional disengagement deficits are amongst the earliest markers in at-risk siblings of children with autism (high-risk by virtue of having an elder sibling diagnosed with ASD) , and are predictive of a later diagnosis. The developmental changes were most pronounced in the group later diagnosed with ASD who have longer saccadic reaction time. In numerous studies, Compared with those of normal children, the attentional disengagment of the autistic children are abnormal. The prospective study of attentional disengagement in autism using the gap-overlap paradigm is particularly extensive abroad. However, our country has?peculiarly little research in this area. In order to promote the application of gap-overlap paradigm in the study of autistic children in China，this paper systematically introduces the program, the principle, the main use index and other contents of gap-overlap paradigm. The function of the gap-overlap paradigm in the prediction of infants with autism and the methodological problems in use are also discussed. In future studies, we should pay attention to the use of gap-overlap paradigm for predicting infants with autism; By the combination of eye movement research and electrophysiological or brain imaging techniques, it is hoped that the deeper causes of autism will be revealed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Explore the Chinese Interdependent Selves: Theories, the Challenges and Integration Kang LI Wang Fengyan 2019, 42(1): 245-250.  Abstract ( )   PDF (414KB) ( )   Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama first proposed that there could be two views of self-construals, namely independent construal and interdependent construal. Many scholars recognize that the Chinese are prominently interdependent self-construal to their western counterparts. Besides theoretical disputations, there are mainly two approaches in studying Chinese interdependent self-construal. One is Chinese indigenous approach, the other is cross-cultural approach. The Chinese indigenous approach advocates that researchers should base on the principle of "indigenous compatibility" to study self. They construct three typical theories: the theory of differential mode of association(DMA), the four-part theory of the Chinese self (FPT), the theory of moral self(TMS). DMA treats individual as the center of the world and gives different values to other people associated with the individual. Some studies discover that the contemporary Chinese attach not only to blood ties, but also to other forms, for instance, classmates, friends, colleagues, etc. Ideas related to FPT first appeared in 1960s. Hsu argued that the Chinese self is situational or social centered. Inspired by Hsu, Ho regarded the Chinese self as the relational self. At nearly the same time Yang believed that the social oriented Chinese interdependent self contained three subtypes, that is, relational orientation, family orientation and others orientation. Some scholars who supported TMS have different viewpoints. They advocated that individuals who have the ultimate meaning consciousness under the enlightenment of the Confucian culture could make a new psychological identity of the unity of heaven and man. However, studies supported TMS have mainly stayed on the speculation level or phenomenological description level. Cross-cultural approach recognizes the tripartite model of self-construal(TMS) and the polycultural self theory(PST). According to TMS, self can be divided into individual self, relational self and collective self based on different level of representation. Some studies discovered significant differences between the Chinese and the Westerners in representing themselves at those three levels. For the Chinese, in the early stage of processing, relationship self and collective self are more dominant; In the late processing stage, the individual occupies the advantage of processing. But the Westerners have always been the dominant individual self. The differences between the three levels of self in Han, Tibetan and Hui Nationalities were compared also. Chiu and Yang create the polycultural self theory(PST), and argue that some people have a new type of self-construct, the polycultural self, to adapt to the complex multicultural environment. Possessing a dynamic structure, the polycultural self characterized by its hybrid cultural identities, manages multiple cultural identities at the same time. Those theories concerning with interdependent self-construal can be systematically grasped from the Meaning Maintenance Model. From different views to understand the essence of Chinese selves, DMA is suitable for explaining the individual centered interdependent self-construal; FPT is suitable for social oriented interdependent self-construal; TMS is suitable for explaining the ultimate meaning self in Confucian culture; PST is suitable for explaining the new kind of self identity emerged in the globalization era. In sum, the Meaning Maintenance Model offered a dynamic multiple perspective to explicate the Chinese interdependent selves. Related Articles | Metrics

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Investigation on the structure characteristics on the teenagers' Public interest-minded HU Yu Ren-LU GUO 2019, 42(1): 202-208.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1025KB) ( )   With the continuous development of public welfare, psychological investigation on the public welfare behaviors has been gradually expanded, but researches paying attention to the teenagers' Public interest-minded is rarely involved. The Public interest-minded is a relatively stable personality characteristics manifested in public behaviors. Teenagers are the potential and major participants for public welfare. Scientific research on teenagers' Public interest-minded, not only can enrich the the psychological theory of public welfare, but also give instructions and inspiration for school to cultivate juvenile moral behavior. There are both theoretical significance and practical value to probe into the characteristics of teenagers' Public interest-minded. Based on the previous studies, the present study carried out an exploratory study on the structure characteristics of the teenagers' Public interest-mind through the survey on teenagers' implicit idea on public welfare. Firstly, with 435 teenagers as subjects, we adopted Implicit Theories survey method to collect the adjectives or phrases which could describe the characteristics of the man with a Public interest-minded. Specifically, participants were instructed to write adjectives and phrases reflecting traits or characteristics of people with Public interest-minded through open questionnaire which was collected and analyzed by classification and combination, then ranked those adjectives or phrases from high to low according to frequency and lastly chose 80 adjectives and phrases representing characteristics of Public interest-minded. Selected 80 adjectives and phrases were randomly arranged to form preliminary <Questionnaire of implicit idea on public welfare for teenagers>. The questionnaire used five scoring systems with one to five from "totally agree" to "totally disagree". Secondly, we recruited 489 teenagers as participants who were required to rate the adjectives in the questionnaire according to their own understanding on Public interest-minded. Data were initially managed and processed in Excel and further analyzed in SPSS17.0. To be specific, exploratory usability testing showed that KMO coefficient was 0.916 and the value of Batley ball test was 4637.597 (df = 210, p=0.000) which provided evidence that there was a strong correlation between every single variables, demonstrating that the data were suitable for exploratory factor analysis. The principal component analysis was used for exploratory factor analysis, showing that the eigenvalues of four factors were over 1. Considering eigenvalue rules and broken stone rules, four factors could explain 59.531% of total variance. Then, the orthogonal rotation test of the variance of the four factors was conducted, and the initial results of each factor load were obtained. 59 items were deleted based on the results of exploratory factor analysis and 21 items were selected to form formal <Questionnaire of implicit idea on public welfare for teenagers>. Furthermore, four factors structure model (sympathy affection, environmental consciousness, collective consciousness, enthusiasm self-confidence) of the teenagers' public mind were confirmed through exploratory factor analysis. Finally, the adjective questionnaire scores of additional 351 teenagers were extracted for confirmatory factor analysis in AMOS19.0, and the results showed that the fitting degree of the four factors structure model of the teenagers' public mind is good, confirming the final four factor structure model of the teenagers' Public interest-minded. Related Articles | Metrics

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Promote Youth's Healthy Psychological Development in new era: The Effect of Automatic Emotion Regulation Strategies on Stress Reaction of Trait Anxiety 2019, 42(1): 209-215.  Abstract ( )   PDF (720KB) ( )   A healthy population is the key mark of a prosperous nation and a strong country. With the growth of social and economic development, people’s living standards have been increasing, but the mental health problems have become the focus of public attention.Anxiety is one of the most common mental health problems in clinical practice today. Those who do not meet the criteria for clinical diagnosis but frequently suffer from anxiety are also worthy of attention.Trait anxiety refers to the tendency to assess internal stimuli or external events in a manner that causes anxiety. It is considered to be the susceptibility factor for individuals to experience more frequent, more intense anxiety and then pathological development. Previous studies have found that individuals with high trait anxiety have deficits in their ability to regulate their emotions. Automatic emotion regulation strategies help alleviate negative emotions that college students and anxious individuals experience from viewing images. However, there are few researches on the emotional response of trait anxiety adolescents in anxiety situation. All of us in the Party should care about young people and set the stage for them to excel. Therefore, this study adapted Trier Social Stress Test, to investigate the effect of cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression on the emotional stress of undergraduates with trait anxiety. This study utilized 3 (expression suppression, cognitive reappraisal, no strategies)×2 (high trait anxiety, low trait anxiety) between-subjects design. First, investigate 60 college students with high trait anxiety and low trait anxiety, and use Sentence Unscrambling Task to induce different emotion regulation strategies. Afterwards, participants receive an interview, finishing time-limited public speaking tasks and matrix calculations Task, and finally make a 1-9 rating of anxiety experience during the task. Biofeedback and physiological coherence autonomous balance systems were used to collect skin electrical level and finger vein changes during the interview. The results showed that there were significant differences in the rate of change of the skin electrical level and finger veins with different emotion regulation strategies. The rate of change of the skin electrical level and finger vein in cognitive reappraisal group was significantly higher than that in expression suppression and control group. There was no significant difference in the rate of change of skin electrical level and finger pulse between high-trait and low-trait anxiety groups. Anxiety arousal in high-trait anxiety group was significantly higher than that in low-trait anxiety group. There was no significant difference in state-anxiety scores between different groups of using different emotion regulation strategies. The above results show that different emotion regulation strategies have a significant effect on the emotional response of college students. Cognitive reappraisal strategies have the most obvious effects on emotion regulation. College students with different trait-anxiety tendency using different emotion regulation strategies would achieve same effect. This shows that the emotion regulation strategy is effective for the emotional regulation of individuals with different anxiety traits. In addition, trait anxiety may affect college students’ anxiety experience.The results show that cognitive reappraisal strategy for emotion regulation effect is the most effective, high trait anxiety individuals are more likely to experience stronger anxiety. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Evolutionary and Cognitive Mechanisms of Third-party Punishment 2019, 42(1): 216-222.  Abstract ( )   PDF (341KB) ( )   Third-party punishment (TPP) typically happens when uninvolved bystanders sacrifice their self-interests to punish social norm violators. Many studies have found convergent evidence that TPP serves as the fundamental mechanism to enable human with genetic heterogeneity to engage in intense cooperation, where individuals would otherwise be tempted to cheat. So far, however, how TPP has actually evolved and its underpinning cognitive mechanisms are still unresolved. Nature selection theory could hardly explain why individuals as third-parties would punish violators because it reduces their own fitness. While indirect reciprocity theory deals with interpersonal dynamics. And recent studies based on it empirically demonstrated that third-party punishers have higher levels of within-group fitness in two ways. First, TPP is a costly signal of trustworthiness in the partner-choice model. Third-party punishers are trusted more by observers than those who do not punish norm violators. Meanwhile, they are indeed more trustworthy than non-punishers. Second, TPP also functions as a deterrence to cheaters in the partner-control model. Third-parties are driven to punish norm violators in order to protect their self-interests by their inference about how norm violators will treat them in the future, and norm violators may be more deterred by third-party punishers than by non-punishers. The exact function of TPP is dependent on the specific context where TPP happens. In particular, if TPP happens in the context of large-scale interpersonal interaction, it functions as a signal of trustworthiness, and as a signal of deterrence in the context of small-scale interpersonal interaction. According to our literature review, we found that TPP is a complex altruistic behavior involving multi-level systems, including emotional systems like guilt, socio-cognitive systems like empathy, and central executive systems like cognitive control. The relationship between empathy and TPP is not as simple as we commonly assumed, i.e., higher empathy is associated with more TPP, but is dependent on context. People with higher levels of empathy tend to help victims if they have the choice to help; instead, if to punish violators is the only choice to enforce social norms, they are inclined to do so. This illustrates how TPP is a special kind of altruistic behaviors. Moreover, cognitive control plays an important role in imposing TPP. First, with the help of cognitive control to inhibit selfishness, individuals as third-parties would be able to resolve the cognitive conflict between maximizing self-interests and sacrificing one’s own interest to enforce norms. Second, cognitive control might modulate the relationship between empathy and TPP, particularly in regulating personal distress, a dimension of empathy negatively correlated with altruism. It is expected to be of great help to understand and solve the practical problems of social governance if we find more what contributes to TPP. Considering TPP is a special kind of altruistic behaviors, future studies could investigate how TPP is different from other kind of altruistic behaviors such as help. Another issue is that the underlying motivations of TPP evoked by guilt and anger may be different, and thus future studies could employ various techniques like eye-tracking, EEG, fMRI, to differentiate them in order to make contribution to the understanding of TPP. Related Articles | Metrics