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The Effects of Image Encoding on False Memory Created by Word List Jin-kun ZHANG 2019, 42(5): 1033-1038.  Abstract ( )   PDF (565KB) ( )   False memory is a phenomenon in which people report deviations from facts in past events. The current study used Deese-Roediger-McDermott（DRM）paradigm to explore the effect of image encoding on vocabulary-based false memory. The reason why DRM paradigm was chosen for research is that the false memory effect induced by DRM paradigm is stronger. In a typical DRM procedure, Participants study a list of words (e.g., milk, toast, flour, butter, jam, biscuits, cream, oat, milk powder, paste ) that are semantically associated to a critical lure (bread). During a memory test, participants often falsely remember the critical lure(bread) as a studied list item, illustrating a false memory for the list. How to effectively reduce the false memory is a practical question. Imagine items intentionally not only can suppress semantic network activation during the encoding phase, but also can facilitate the extraction of real learning materials. Several researches using DRM paradigm had found that instructing participants to imagine items intentionally can reduce false memory rates, however, some researches claimed that there is no significant difference. By comparing the experiment procedure used in those researches, we found different image encoding time and depth of image encoding were used and mixed up, and the effect of image encoding on false memory is relatively small totally. We conducted two experiments to clarify the effects of image encoding times and the degree of image encoding on false memory. Experiment 1 used a 2(image encoding time: 3 seconds, 5 seconds) × 2 (test type: free recall, recognition) mixed experiment design, with image encoding time the within-subject variable, and test type the between-subject variable. Experiment 2 used a 2(image encoding time: 3 seconds, 5 seconds) ×2(image encoding degree: deep processing, shallow processing) ×2 (test type: free recall, recognition) mixed experiment design, with image encoding time and image encoding degree the between-subject variable, test type the within-subject variable. Dependent variable is the false memory rate. In the learning stage, the participants remembered the presented words. During the testing phase, at the end of each word list learning, the participants recalled the word list freely, the recognition test was performed after the distraction task. The results showed that false memories under 5 seconds of image encoding time was significantly less than that under 3 seconds of image encoding time（p<.05）. Under the condition of 5 seconds of image encoding time, false memory in the deep-processing group was significantly lower than that of the shallow-processing group (p<.01). The Activation-Monitoring Framework can be better explained the result. In the learning stage, participants imagine items intentionally, it can suppress its automatic image and reduce the probability of activation of critical lure, on the other hand, image encoding can process more details. These results suggested that image encoding can reduce false memory rates. More specifically, when given more image encoding time, with deeper processing, participants were able to remember more details, which mediately led to reducing the false memory rate. Further study of the effect of image encoding on false memory can consider the different situation. Related Articles | Metrics

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The explanation of perceptual field hypothesis on the own-age bias of holistic processing of face 2019, 42(5): 1076-1082.  Abstract ( )   PDF (847KB) ( )   The own-age bias refers to a phenomenon that people had higher face recognition performance on their own-age faces than other-age faces. The mainstream explanations for this phenomenon are the holistic processing hypothesis and the experience-based hypothesis. The holistic processing hypothesis proposes that (1) people have stronger holistic processing on their own-age faces than other-age faces, and (2) holistic processing is positively correlated with the ability of face recognition. Such that, the stronger holistic processing results in better performance of own-age face recognition. The experience-based hypothesis holds that the primary reason for the own-age bias is the extensive, recent experience that people acquired from contact with their own-age peers. However, the explanation of holistic processing on own-age bias provides less information about how this holistic processing works. Besides, both own-age bias and holistic processing can be affected by face orientation. Kuefner et al. (2008) found that adults had higher performance on their own-age face than other-age face when faces were presented upright but not inverted. Pellicano and Rhodes (2003) found that participants adopted the holistic processing to the upright face, but not to the inverted face. Rossion (2008) proposed the perceptual field hypothesis to explore the nature of holistic processing of face. This hypothesis preliminarily supported by Van Belle, Lefevre, & Rossion (2015) who developed a gaze-contingent morphing approach. However, it is still uncertain that whether the size of perceptual field can be an index as the strength of holistic processing. Also, when using the perceptual field size to evaluate the holistic processing, how does the own-age bias effect change? By using the gaze-contingent morphing approach and the inverted face paradigm, we tried to test two hypotheses: (1) If the perceptual field size can be an index to evaluate holistic processing, then participants’ perceptual field size should be larger when they processed upright face than inverted face; (2) If perceptual filed size can be an index of holistic processing and the holistic processing hypothesis can explain the own-age bias effect, then participants should have larger perceptual field size on their own-age faces than other-age faces when the faces are presented upright but not inverted. In two experiments, the present study found that: (1) Both adults and children had larger size of perceptual field when they recognized upright face than inverted face; (2) When faces were presented upright, adults, but not children, had large size of perceptual field on their own-age faces than other-age faces. But this effect was not evident in inverted face condition. These results indicated that perceptual field size can be an index as the holistic processing of face. The own-age bias of holistic processing can be affected by the face orientation. Compared with previous paradigms, perceptual field-based gaze-contingent morphing approach reveals how the own-age bias of holistic processing works. When participants gaze a specific feature on their own-age faces, other identities outside the specific feature will affect the perception to the specific feature, which is supported by large size of perceptual filed; but when participants recognize the feature of the other-age faces, their perceptual field is restricted to this feature — a small size of perceptual field. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of cognitive load on motivational emotional processing 2019, 42(5): 1069-1075.  Abstract ( )   PDF (949KB) ( )   The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of motivation on emotional stimulus processing under the different cognitive load by combining the emotional flanker task with the number task. The present study used pictures with different emotional dimensions of valence as the target stimuli and pictures with different emotional dimensions of motivation as the interference stimuli. The present study included two experiments both using a 2 (cognitive load: high vs. low) × 2 (the motivation of interference stimuli: high vs. low) × 2 (the valence of target stimulus: positive vs. negative) mixed design. The procedure of the two experiments was the same ones. At the beginning of each experiment, a random number presented at the center of the screen (two digits under the low cognitive load, three digits under the high cognitive load). Participants were asked to remember this number, and keep counting from this number and reporting loudly (take the number to plus 2 under the low cognitive load condition, reduce 6 under the high cognitive load condition) in the following flanker task. In the flanker task, participants’ main task was to ignore the pictures presented on the one side of the screen and evaluate the valence of well-defined emotional stimuli (words in the Experiment1 and pictures in the Experiment2) as quickly as possible by pressing the “J” key for positive stimuli and the “F” key for negative stimuli. The Experiment 1 used positive/ negative words as target stimuli and pictures with high/low motivation as the interference stimuli. Results showed that there was a significant interaction among the cognitive load, the valence of target stimulus and the motivation of interference stimuli. Under the high cognitive load condition, the response times (RTs) were shorter for positive words relative to negative words in the high motivation condition, while the RTs were shorter for negative words relative to positive words in the low motivation condition. However, no significant difference was found under the low cognitive load condition. That was to say, only in the high cognitive load condition, high motivation facilitated positive emotional processing and low motivation facilitated negative emotional processing, indicating that motivation had an influence on the processing of emotional stimuli in the high cognitive load condition. What’s more, the RTs under the high cognitive load condition were shorter than those under the low cognitive load condition besides the RTs for positive words in high motivation condition. In the Experiment 2, positive/negative pictures were used as target stimuli and pictures with high/low motivation were used as the interference stimuli. The results of Experiment 2 were almost the same as the results of the Experiment 1. That was, under the high cognitive load condition, high motivation facilitated the processing of positive emotional stimuli, while low motivation facilitated the processing of negative emotional stimuli, and no difference was found under the low cognitive load condition. What’s more, the RTs under the high cognitive load condition were shorter than those under the low cognitive load condition besides the RTs for positive words in high motivation condition and the RTs for negative words in low motivation condition. In summary, under the high cognitive load condition, high motivation facilitated positive emotional processing, while low motivation facilitated negative emotional processing. Moreover, high cognitive load hindered the emotional processing. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of the arrangement of stimuli on inhibition of return：an ERPs Study 2019, 42(5): 1054-1060.  Abstract ( )   PDF (976KB) ( )   Inhibition of return (IOR) refers to slower responses to stimuli appearing at previously attended locations than new locations. Although a large number of ERPs have found that there is a stable difference (Nd250) between the target evoked ERPs at the cue and uncued locations around 250-300 ms, the direction of this difference is not consistent. A possible reason for this inconsistency is that these studies used a different arrangement of stimuli. So far, few studies have directly investigated the impact of this factor on the expression of IOR on Nd250. In the current study, we combined ERPs with the cue-target paradigm and manipulated the arrangement of stimuli to examine whether it could affect the expression of IOR on Nd250 or not. Sixteen paid, naive volunteers recruited from the campus of Soochow University (10 females, 6 males, 20±2.37 years old) participated in the experiment. All participants had normal or corrected visual acuity and had no experience in similar experiments. All participants gave written informed consent according to the standard of the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was approved by the Academic Committee of the Department of Psychology, Soochow University. The current study used a 2 (arrangement of stimuli) × 2 (cue-target relationship) within-subject design. There are two levels of the arrangement of stimuli (horizontal and vertical arrangement) and two two levels of the cue-target relationship (cued and uncued). Under cued trials, the cue and the target were presented at the same location; under uncued trials, the cue and the target appeared at different locations. While the cue-target relationship factor was varied within blocks, the arrangement of stimuli was varied between blocks. The arrangement of stimuli order was balanced across the 12 experimental blocks with an ABBA-BAAB-ABBA design and counterbalanced across participants. The experiment was conducted in a quiet, dimly lit room. The participants were sat around 80 cm away from the screen and responded with a gamepad. During the experiment, the participants were required to make a discrimination task on targets (@ vs. &) occurred either at previous cued locations or uncued locations. EEG and EEG data were collected using a Neuroscan system with a 64-channel Quik-Cap. Although the effect of the arrangement of stimuli on the polarity of Nd250 was not observed, we do observe a significant effect of the arrangement of stimuli on the topographic distribution of early ERP components: while the P1 cueing effect under the horizontal arrangement condition distributed over bilateral parietal-occipital areas and peaked around the right parietal-occipital area, the P1 cueing effect under the vertical arrangement condition distributed laterally over the left parietal-occipital area. Besides, we also observed a central-parietal distributed N1 cueing effect which is slightly different from previous ERP studies of IOR. In short, the results suggest that 1) the inconsistent polarity of the Nd250 in the past ERPs studies is more likely caused by other factors rather than the arrangement of the stimuli. 2) The arrangement of the stimuli could modulate the topographic distribution of the P1 cueing effect rather than the N1 cueing effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Reward Processing in the Human Orbitofrontal Cortex: An Updated Review Zhen-Liang LIU Yan-Song LI 2019, 42(5): 1047-1053.  Abstract ( )   PDF (584KB) ( )   The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is an important brain region in the human prefrontal cortex. Based on findings from electrophysiological studies in nonhuman primates and brain imaging studies in humans, this region has been demonstrated to play a critical role in representing key parameters of reward information, including reward magnitudes, reward types and expected/experienced reward value. Accumulating evidence has revealed two important features of such representation in this brain region: 1) neural representation of different kinds of reward on a common currency scale; 2) the existence of sub-regions that are specific to a particular type of reward. In addition, there is a growing interest in the potential relationship between local morphology in this brain region and its functional role in representing reward information. It has been found that the localizations of distinct experienced value signals (primary/secondary rewards) can be predicted from the organization of the human orbitofrontal sulci. More specifically, the experienced value signal induced by monetary reward outcome was systematically located in the rostral portion of the medial orbital sulcus. In contrast, the experienced value signal that was related to erotic reward outcome was located more posteriorly, that is, at the intersection between the caudal portion of the medial orbital sulcus and transverse orbital sulcus. Moreover, another line of research also found that reward dysfunction was related to the local morphology in this brain region in patients with mental and neurological disorders, including substance use disorder and schizophrenia. Despite such evidence, little is still known about the temporal dynamics of coding reward-related signals in the human OFC. Recent studies have provided important insights into it. Specifically, the expected value signal starts to rise around 400ms after cue presentation in the OFC. This latency is later than that of 170ms in the visual cortex, implying the OFC should not be an early part of the brain circuit representing expected value. Furthermore, regardless of reward or non-reward delivery, robust risk signals were observed, which started around 350ms after the outcome appeared. The latency of risk signals is shorter than that in the hippocampus, indicating the OFC should be a late part of the brain circuit responsible for processing risk information. The experienced value signal combined with subjective pleasure in the OFC started immediately at the time of reward/non-reward delivery. In this review, we summarized the rapid development in fields of reward processing in the human OFC on the basis of three lines of research, ranging from key features of the functional role of this brain region in computing and representing reward value, the potential link between structural properties and its functions in processing reward to the neural dynamics of reward value and risk coding in this brain region. Moreover, we take a further step toward discussing the possible implications for future research. We are hoping that this review would help researchers get an important picture of important findings that have been revealed over the past few years and therefore contributes to their own work in this field. Related Articles | Metrics

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The time course of chunk decomposition: an ERP study Yi LEI Hong LI 2019, 42(5): 1026-1032.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1014KB) ( )   Chunk decomposition is a critical mechanism of insight problem solving and creative thinking. It refers to decomposing a holistic perceptual chunk into its components in order for creating new products or reorganization. Previous studies mainly investigated the neuro-cognitive mechanism of chunk decomposition related to the element-type-based chunk tightness, less is known on the neural correlates of insightful chunk decomposition associated with chunk tightness based on spatial intersecting relationship. The current study aimed to investigate the cognitive processing mechanism and the neural dynamics of insightful chunk decomposition by using the event-related potentials (ERPs) technique of high temporal resolution in a Chinese character decomposition task. Twenty-four volunteers (11 female; 20.29 ± 1.78) participated in this study. All of them were native Chinese, right-handed, and had normal and correct-to-normal vision. They reported no history of brain damage or psychiatry. Participants were asked to complete a character decomposition task in which they removed strokes or a character from a source character for getting a valid character. Two conditions were manipulated and compared according to the category relationship between the probe (the to-be-removed part) and the target (the left part). In the condition of same category, the to-be-removed part and the left part are both characters. In the condition of different categories, the to-be-removed part are strokes and the left part is a character. More critically, to ensure character decomposition occurs in an insightful way, we kept the to-be-removed part (strokes or a character) and the left part (a character) in a spatially intersecting relationship in the to-be-decomposed chunk. Meanwhile, ERPs were recorded after the onset of the source character when chunk decomposition occurs. We hypothesized that the condition of same category (vs. different categories) would induce greater perceptual conflict in the two stages of insightful chunk decomposition where the to-be-removed part (a probe) and the left part (a target) are spatially intersecting with each other in the source character. Specifically, in the stage of probe identification, same category (vs. different categories) would elicit greater perceptual conflict due to the distraction of the left part, which was reflected by greater N2 deflection. In the stage of perceptual transformation, same category (vs. different categories) would elicit greater perceptual conflict and make transformation more difficult, which was reflected by decreased LPC. The results supported the hypothesis by showing that the condition of same category elicited greater N2 amplitude during the time window of 250-400 ms and decreased LPC amplitude during the time window of 550-1000 ms, compared with the condition of different categories. Consistent with the EEG data, it was shown that chunk decomposition required significantly longer response times in the same category condition than in the condition of different categories. It is concluded that chunk decomposition might contribute to insight problem solving by breaking difficulty in two phases. In early stage of insightful chunk decomposition, the difficulty of probe identification might lead to perceptual conflict, eliciting greater N2 amplitude. In the later stage of insightful chunk decomposition, the difficulty of perceptual transformation might cause memory load, as reflected by decreased LPC amplitude. Ultimately, both difficulty in identification phase and transformation phase lead to longer reaction times in behavioral performances. The current study aimed to investigate the information processing mechanism and the neural dynamics of insightful chunk decomposition by using the event-related potentials (ERPs) technique of high temporal resolution in a Chinese character decomposition task. Twenty-four volunteers (11 female; 20.29 ± 1.78) participated in this study. All of them were native Chinese, right-handed, and had normal and correct-to-normal vision. They reported no history of brain damage or psychiatry. Participants were asked to complete a character decomposition task in which they removed strokes or a character from a source character for getting a valid character. Two conditions were manipulated and compared according to the category relationship between the probe (the to-be-removed part) and the target (the left part): in the condition of same category, the to-be-removed part and the left part are both characters; in the condition of different categories, the to-be-removed part are strokes and the left part is a character. More critically, to ensure character decomposition occurs in an insightful way, we kept the to-be-removed part (strokes or a character) and the left part (a character) in a spatially crossed relation in the to-be-decomposed chunk. Meanwhile, ERPs were recorded after the onset of the source character when chunk decomposition occurs. We hypothesized that the condition of same category (vs. different categories) would induce greater perceptual conflict in the two stages of insightful chunk decomposition where the probe and target are spatially intersecting with each other in the source character. Specifically, in the stage of probe identification, same category (vs. different categories) would elicit greater perceptual conflict due to the distraction of the left part, which was reflected by greater N2 deflection. In the stage of perceptual transformation, same category (vs. different categories) would elicit greater perceptual conflict and make transformation more difficult, which was reflected by decreased LPC. The results supported the hypothesis by showing that the condition of same category elicited greater N2 amplitude during the time window of 250-400ms and decreased LPC amplitude during the time window of 550-1000 ms, compared with the condition of different categories. Converging with the EEG data, it was shown that chunk decomposition required significantly longer response times in the same category condition than in the different categories condition. it is concluded that chunk decomposition might contribute to insight problem solving by breaking difficulties in two phases: in early stage of insightful chunk decomposition, the difficulty of probe identification might lead to perceptual conflict, eliciting greater N2 amplitude; in the later stage of insightful chunk decomposition, the difficulty of perceptual transformation might cause memory load, as reflected by decreased LPC amplitude. Ultimately, the two stages of difficulties lead to longer reaction times in behavioral performances. Related Articles | Metrics

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Working memory training and the transfer effect on the math skills 2019, 42(5): 1120-1126.  Abstract ( )   PDF (923KB) ( )   The core function of working memory is to store and process different information at the same time. It plays an important role in many complex cognitive activities, and also has an important impact on individual learning, reasoning, intellectual activities and problem solving. Working memory will be improved after being trained by different methods, such as training the individual's memory strategy, attentional controlled ability (including updating, switching and inhibition), and memory span training. Training on working memory tasks has been shown to improve performance on the same and related tasks and, in some cases, generalizes to other cognitive domains. Math skills rely on the basic knowledge of mathematical, as well as the development of general cognitive abilities. If working memory training can promote general cognitive ability, theoretically it can also transfer to improve mathematical ability. The research found that effect of working memory training can be transferred to math skills such as number sense, phonological space ability, and reasoning ability. Working memory training can also promote mathematical computing ability by improving phonological working memory and spatial ability; and it can promote complex mathematics processes such as problem representation, pattern recognition, problem solving, and strategies, by improving central executive system of working memory. However, the far transfer effects of working memory training on the individual's mathematical, fluid intelligence and other aspects are not consistent. Evidence showed that the immediate effect of far transfer is obvious, but the far transfer effect will be gradually weaken after three or six month. Therefore, further evidence of the effect of working memory training on the transfer of mathematical ability would be more clear if the cognitive processes of different mathematical tasks were distinguished. Different types of students with math learning difficulty have different features of cognitive functions, which would help to find the definite training effect of each training task. These findings suggest that the extent to which different math skills share neurocognitive systems and/or processes may predict the extent to which the effects of working memory training on one will transfer to the other. The evidence of neuroimaging may be another support of the improvement of mathematics ability by working memory training in the future. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Social Distance and Distribution Differences on Children’s Advantageous Inequity Aversion 2019, 42(5): 1141-1147.  Abstract ( )   PDF (448KB) ( )   Although inequity aversion includes disadvantageous and advantageous inequity aversion, researches about inequity aversion rarely refer to the advantageous inequity aversion. In this study, we would explore the effects of social distance and distribution differences on children’s advantageous inequity aversion, utilizing the forced-choice dictator game. Sixty children aged from 8 to 10 years old took part in this research. It’s a 3 (social distance) ×3 (distribution differences) repeated experimental design. And the independent variables of social distance included three levels in close (between self and close friend), mediate (between self and acquaintance) and far (between self and stranger), and the independent variables of distribution differences included three advantageous inequity proposals in low (distributing 60% to self and 40% to other), middle (distributing 80% to self and 20% to other) and high (distributing 100% to self and 0% to other). In the experiment, participants were showed some gifts (such as 10 candies) for distribution, then the social distance between you and the other people was presented, later an advantageous inequity proposal in high, middle or low distribution difference was displayed. At last, participants made a choice between accept or reject the proposal. If they accept the proposal, then they would get the gift corresponding to the proposal; if they reject the proposal, then they would get nothing. The mean rejection rate of the three advantageous inequity proposals was utilized to measure the advantageous inequity aversion, which was the dependent variable in this study. The higher rejection rate indicated the stronger advantageous inequity aversion. The results showed that: (1) the main effect of social distance was significant, F(2, 118) = 29.68, p < .01, ηp 2 = .34. The rejection rate of the distribution proposal between self and close friend (M = .87, SD = .17) was higher than that between self and acquaintance (M = .70, SD = .30), which was also higher than that between self and stranger (M = .57, SD = .32). (2) The main effect of distribution difference also significant, F(2,118) = 36.31, p < .01, ηp 2 = .38. The rejection rate of low distribution difference (M = .57, SD = .31) was significantly lower than the middle distribution difference (M = .74, SD = .24), which was also lower than the high distribution difference (M = .83, SD = .20). (3) The interaction between social distance and distribution difference was significant, F(4, 236) = 3.76, p < .05, ηp 2 = .06. The simple effects of social distance were significant on the three levels of distribution differences, too. This research revealed that social distance and distribution difference had significant effects on the children’s advantageous inequity aversion. The closer social distance and the greater distribution difference were, the stronger children’s advantageous inequity aversion was. Social distances moderated the children’s advantageous inequity aversion, and the moderating effect of social distance on the level of middle distribution difference was more obvious. Further research would select older child as subjects for describing the developmental situation of children’s advantageous inequity aversion in children of different ages. Related Articles | Metrics

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Home-school Cooperation and Academic Achievement Among Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model 2019, 42(5): 1091-1097.  Abstract ( )   PDF (872KB) ( )   Abstract Increasing students’ academic achievements is one of important goals for educators, which has received considerable attention in public. To achieve it, it is critical to find out the factors influencing academic success and how they make a difference, one of which is home-school cooperation. In recent years, home-school cooperation, largely defined as “parents’ positive interaction with schools with purpose of facilitating their children’s educational outcomes and future success”, has drawn more attention. Studies have revealed that home-school cooperation was an important factor for students’ academic achievement; however, less is known about the underlying processes that may mediate or moderate that relationship. To answer this question, a moderated mediation model was proposed. Therefore, present study aimed to examine the association between home-school cooperation and academic achievement, as well as the mediating effect of parent-child interaction and the moderating effect of only child situation between them. The survey method was conducted with the home-school cooperation questionnaire, parent-child interaction questionnaire as well as academic test, being administered to 2380 adolescents and their parents. Data was collected and analyzed with Mplus7.0 and SPSS19.0. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both model fit the data satisfactorily for home-school cooperation and parent-child communication, and bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the mediating effect of parent-child interaction and the moderating effect of only child situation between home-school cooperation and academic achievement. The main findings of the study were as follows: (1) Home-school cooperation had a positive effect on academic achievement among adolescents directly; (2) Parent-child interaction played a mediating role in the relationship between home-school cooperation and academic achievement; (3) Only child situation moderated the relationship between home-school cooperation and academic achievement (for the second half mediation path). In other words, moderated effect was stronger for only children than non-only children. Thus, both mediating and moderating effects existed in the association between home-school cooperation and adolescents’ academic achievement. To conclude, this study constructed a moderated mediation model of parent-child interaction and only child situation to reveal the mechanisms underlying the relationship between home-school cooperation and academic achievement, which could help us comprehend how and when home-school cooperation impacted adolescents’ academic achievement. Furthermore, the results also suggested that parents can take a series of measures to improve the academic performance of children. First, parents can communicate more with schools, increasing the frequency and quality of home-school cooperation. Second, parents could take the initiative to establish a harmonious parent-child relationship with their adolescents. Moreover, parents need to pay more attention to each child as much as possible. Also, the conclusions drawn from this study should be considered in light of some limitations. First, there may be other mechanisms underlying the associations. The second limitation is that, as a cross-sectional study, it’s unable to explore the impact of home-school cooperation on adolescents’ academic achievement at different stages. The future research could improve it by focusing on longitudinal studies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Orthographic Preview Effect of Chinese Second Graders in Reading 2019, 42(5): 1113-1119.  Abstract ( )   PDF (699KB) ( )   Orthographic information plays an important role in reading development. Orthographic preview effect is an important component of language processing, which varies depending on the characteristics of different languages. Compared to alphabetic languages, Chinese, a logographic writing system, has unique orthographic characteristics. The mapping between orthography and phonology is not relatively transparent, and orthography plays a greater role than phonology does. The second grade in primary school is an important period for children to cultivate their decoding ability and reading fluency. Parafoveal preprocessing of upcoming words and the resultant preview benefit are key aspects of fluent reading. Thus, in the present study, two experiments were conducted to investigate whether second graders could obtain the orthographic information of upcoming words in single-word recognition task and silent sentence reading task. In Experiment 1, the participants were 35 second graders and 39 college students. The lexical decision task was used to explore if the participants could obtain the orthographic information parafoveally. The design of the experiment was 3(Preview type: identical, orthographic, unrelated)×2(Prime time: 60ms, 100ms) ×2(Age group:second graders, college students) mixed design. On each trial, one preview character was first briefly presented parafoveally in the left or right visual field before one target character was displayed. The data was analyzed using the linear mixed effects model. The results showed that, orthographic information could be obtained by second graders at 100ms SOA, and adults could obtain orthographic information in parafovea at 60ms and 100ms SOA. In addition, we compared the magnitude of orthographic preview effect of two groups of participants at 100ms SOA. The results showed that there was no significant difference. Overall, second graders had longer response times than adults did, which showing that the speed of vocabulary processing for second graders is generally slower than that for adults. In Experiment 2, the participants were 30 second graders and 30 college students. Their eye movements were recorded with a EyeLink2000 eye tracker. Three preview types (identical, orthographic, unrelated) were used to explore the parafoveal preview effect by the boundary paradigm. All the target characters were embedded in experimental sentences written to be engaging for second graders. The data was analyzed using the linear mixed effects model. The?results?were as?follows. For second graders, in first fixation duration, single fixation duration, and gaze duration, we found significant orthographic benefit effect for second graders and adults, and there was no interaction between the orthographic preview benefit effect and age group. In total fixation duration, the orthographic benefit effect of 26 ms did not reach significance for second graders, there was significant orthographic benefit effect for adults, and there was marginally significant interaction between the orthographic preview benefit effect and age group. Moreover, for second graders and adults, the fixation durations were longer in the unrelated condition than that in identical condition in all the dependent measures. And the significant interaction between the identical preview benefit effect and age group indicates that children can not process vocabulary as quickly and efficiently as adults readers because they get less information from parafoveal area. In addition, there was no significant difference between identical and orthographic conditions in all the dependent measures for second graders, but the fixation durations were longer in the orthographic condition than that in identical condition for adults. In conclusion, our data indicate that second graders can not only use orthographic information of upcoming words to facilitate word recognition processes in single-word recognition, but also in silent sentence reading. In addition, development of parafoveal processing of orthographic information is shown in the following aspects. First, children need longer preview time to process vocabulary than adults do. Secondly, the orthographic preview benefit effect shows a certain development pattern. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Development and Reducing of Foresight Bias 2019, 42(5): 1148-1154.  Abstract ( )   PDF (586KB) ( )   Foresight bias is defined in this study as the Judgment of Learning (JoL) made by participants is higher than the correct recall that retrieved by participants. Judgment of Learning is an important form of metacognitve monitoring. It refers to a predictive judgment of whether the items that have learned can be recalled in subsequent test. Previous studies has found that compared to forward associated pairs, backward associated pairs (e.g. rain-umbrella) are more likely to produce higher Judgment of learning. The present study try to examined which ages are more likely to produce higher Judgment of learning with grade 2, grade 3 and grade 5 in prime school, as well as examined which method can reduce the foresight bias with theory-based, mnemonic-based and feedback with the correct recall of items. In the experiment, participants learned a list of 18 pairs backward associated words. Each pair of word finished, participant need do a judgment, which is if you are presented with the word on the left, what the probability that you can recall the word on the right in 5 seconds with a rate of 0-10. After all of the word pairs were finished, participants did a interference task in 1minute, and then start to recall the word on the right with the present of word on the left one by one. Each word were given 20 seconds. After the first “Learn-Test” finished, researcher used different methods to debiasing participants’ foresight bias. In the theory-based group, researcher explained the foresight bias to participants. First, researcher inform the correct recall of items and their predicted to participants. Second, asked participants learned 4 new pairs of word and do judgment, then tell them the real probability they recalled after each word pair. After complete all of 4 word pairs, researcher explained the foresight bias and the potential factors to participants. In the feedback group, researcher just told participants the correct recall and their predicted. In the mnemonic-based group, researcher do not provide any information to participants. Then start the second “Learn-Test” just like the first. The results showed that foresight bias occurred with students of primary 2 and 3, but students of primary 5 did not show the foresight bias. For children of primary 2, only theory-based debiasing procedures had effect on foresight bias, and can lead to transfer to the new materials; for children of primary 3, all three procedures had the same effect for alleviating inflated JoLs. The results showed that matecognitive monitoring is better for older children, and for younger children different debiasing procedures have different effects on reducing their foresight bias. Related Articles | Metrics

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Deviant peer affiliation and adolescents’ problematic Internet use: A cross-lagged panel analysis 2019, 42(5): 1134-1140.  Abstract ( )   PDF (588KB) ( )   Problematic Internet use (PIU) and its’ detrimental effects on adolescents’ development have attracted much research and public attention. Problematic Internet use has been linked to physical and psychosocial problems, such as sleeplessness, academic failure, depressive symptoms, and externalizing problems. It is essential to understand the etiology of adolescents’ PIU in order to identify targeted interventions. Peers comprise an important component of adolescents’ social contexts. Thus, the role of peers in adolescents’ PIU is noteworthy. Deviant peer affiliation is a core characteristic of negative social connectedness with peers. There is considerable evidence indicating deviant peer affiliation is a powerful predicator of adolescents’ problem behaviors (e.g., aggression, substance use, and delinquency) and emotional disturbances (e.g., depression, anxiety). However, limited number of research focused on the role of deviant peer affiliation in adolescents’ PIU. More importantly, the reciprocal relation between deviant peer affiliation and adolescents’ PIU has not been determined. This study used a two-wave cross-lagged panel analysis to explore the likely reciprocal association between deviant peer affiliation and adolescents’ PIU. In addition, we also examined whether the above bidirectional relation would differ by sex. Participants were 886 adolescents (44% boys; Mage = 15.55) who provided self-report data on deviant peer affiliation and problematic Internet use as well as demographic variables at the beginning and the end of a school year. We used the questionnaire developed by our study team to assess deviant peer affiliation. In addition, adolescents’ PIU was measured by the diagnostic questionnaire for screening of Internet dependency developed by Young and modified by Li and his colleagues for use in Chinese populations. All the measures have good reliability and validity. We first calculated descriptive statistics for our variables of interest and bivariate association among these variables in SPSS 19.0 software. The follow-up cross-lagged model was conducted using Mplus 7.0. After controlling for sex, we found that deviant peer affiliation at the beginning of the school year was a significant and positive predictor of PIU at the end of the school year (b1 = .05, SE =.03, p < .05). Moreover, PIU at the beginning of the school year also positively predicted adolescents’ deviant peer affiliation at the end of the school year (b2 = .08, SE = .03, p < .05). There were gender differences in the bidirectional association between deviant peer affiliation and adolescents’ PIU. In summary, the current study is an important step towards a better understanding of the relation between deviant peer affiliation and adolescents’ PIU. It showed the bidirectional association between deviant peer affiliation and PIU: higher level of deviant peer affiliation predicted more PIU over time, and vice verse. Gender differences were found in the above bidirectional association by multiple group analyses. Thus, more attention should be paid to male students. These findings contribute to understanding the antecedents and outcomes of adolescent PIU and have important implications for interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence of adolescents’ PIU. We recommended that deviant peer context facilitates PIU should be supervised. In addition, various programs (e.g., cognitive behavioral therapy, family therapy) are needed to carry out so as to alleviate the negative consequences of PIU on peer socialization. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of positive and negative numbers mixed presentation on the SNARC effect of negative numbers 2019, 42(5): 1083-1090.  Abstract ( )   PDF (649KB) ( )   The SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes) refers to the fact that the left hand responds to small numbers faster than the right hand, while the right hand responds to large numbers faster than the left hand when participants performs a parity judgment task. At present, most studies on the SNARC effect focus on the positive numbers, but few researches have explored the negative numbers. However, there is still a debate among the interpreters of the SNARC effect of negative numbers that the spatial representation of negative numbers is affected by the absolute value and cannot extend to the leftward of the mental number line, or by the magnitude value and can extend to the leftward of the mental number line.Although studies have explored the SNARC effect of negative numbers, there are still some issues to be explored. First, some researchers used a way of independently presented negative numbers to observe the spatial representation of negative numbers, and found the inverted SNARC effect of negative numbers. However, some researchers have used a way of positive and negative numbers mixed presentation to explore the connection between negative and space, and the traditional SNARC effect of negative numbers was discovered. So, does the negative numbers alone or mixed with positive numbers presented have different effects on the SNARC effect of negative numbers? Second, in the existing studies, some researches used a way of the positive numbers with no plus sign mixed with negative numbers, and the reversed SNARC effect of negative numbers was found. However, others have used a way of the positive numbers with plus sign mixed with negative numbers, but not found the SNARC effect of negative numbers. Then, does the positive numbers without plus sign and the positive numbers which have plus sign mixed with negative numbers have different effects on the SNARC effect of negative numbers? Finally, some researchers asked the participants to respond only to negative numbers under the positive numbers and negative numbers mixed conditions, and the inverted SNARC effect appeared in negative numbers. However, other researchers told the participants to respond to both positive and negative numbers, but found a traditional SNARC effect of negative numbers. So, does respond only to negative numbers and respond to both positive and negative numbers have a different effect on the SNARC effect of negative numbers? Therefore, these issues are worthy of further discussion.In the current study, we use a magnitude judgment task to investigate the effect of positive and negative numbers mixed presentation on the negative SNARC effect. The results show that under the condition of negative number alone presented, the reversed SNARC effect which the left hand responds to small numbers faster than the right hand, while the right hand responds to large numbers faster than the left hand when participants performs a button reaction，was found; under the condition that the negative number mixed with the positive without plus sign and only reacted to the negative number, the negative number has the inverse SNARC effect; under the condition that the negatives number mixed with the positive numbers which have plus sign and only reacted to the negative number, the negative number has the inverse SNARC effect; under the condition that the negatives number mixed with the positive numbers without plus sign and respond to both positive and negative numbers, the negative number has the inverted SNARC effect, while the positive number appears a traditional SNARC effect.In general, the spatial representation of negative numbers is affected by the absolute values, which is negative numbers with smaller absolute values (-1, -2) are represented on the left side of the mental number line, while negative numbers with larger absolute values (-8, -9) are represented on the right side of the mental number line, and does not extend to the leftward of the mental number line. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Developmental Trajectories of Cyberbullying among Chinese Junior High School Students: The Impacts of Moral Disengagement, Perspective Taking and Empathic Concern 2019, 42(5): 1098-1105.  Abstract ( )   PDF (606KB) ( )   School bullying is a significant and widespread problem among school-age children around the world. Because of its psychological and social maladjustment problems, bullying has been gaining the attention of both researchers and the public. In recent years, with the high-speed development of information technology and network technology, a new form of bullying has emerged, that is, cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is a contemporary variant of the traditional bullying, in which individuals intentionally and repeatedly hurt others in an electronic context. In the current studies of cyberbullying, most of them were based on cross-sectional study design. However, longitudinal studies are able to examine the dynamic processes of cyberbullying, as well as risk and protective processes associated with cyberbullying. These longitudinal research conclusions could contribute to the prevention and intervention of cyberbullying. Therefore, the aim of present research is to investigate the potential developmental trajectories and longitudinal risk factors of cyberbullying in adolescence. The present research examined the developmental trajectories of cyberbullying by employing a longitudinal, four-wave design. Moreover, the current research also examined the impacts of moral disengagement, perspective taking and empathy. The sample consisted of 496 adolescents (52.8% boys) in grade eight, who was followed up for two years from grade eight to grade nine. They were assessed on moral disengagement, perspective taking and empathy at Time 1, cyberbullying from Time 1 to Time 4. Using latent growth modeling, the current research examined: (1) adolescents’ initial levels and growth rate in cyberbullying over time; (2) the predictive effects of moral disengagement, perspective taking and empathy on both initial levels and growth rate in cyberbullying. The results of unconditional latent growth modeling analyses indicated that the junior high school students’s cyberbullying presents a decreasing trend significantly in the period of 2 years. Furthermore, the initial levels of adolescents’ cyberbullying were related to the growth rate in cyberbullying. Conditional latent growth modeling was examined with gender, moral disengagement, perspective taking and empathy as time-invariant risk fac--tors on both initial levels and growth rate in adolescents’ cyberbullying. The results showed that (1) moral disengagement has a significantly positive prediction on the initial levels of cyberbullying and negative prediction on the growth rate; (2) perspective taking has a negative prediction on the initial levels of cyberbullying and significantly positive prediction on the growth rate; (3) empathy has no prediction on the initial levels of cyberbullying and the growth rate. The present findings revealed developmental trajectories of adolescents’ cyberbullying. The results also suggested that moral disengagement and perspective taking could play an important role in the development of cyberbullying among adolescence. Overall, the findings support the theory of Moral Disengagement and Social Information-Processing Model. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Cyber-ostracism on Traditional Aggression & Online Aggressive Behavior of College Students: The Mediating Role of Alienation 2019, 42(5): 1106-1112.  Abstract ( )   PDF (711KB) ( )   The mechanism of aggression is always a hot topic in psychology. With the development of internet, online aggressive behavior has gradually become a new form of aggression. Now, it is anxious for college students to face traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior from different people. According to the previous researches, the rate of online aggressive behavior is 59.5% in China, and the aggression rate is nearly 88.8%. Exposuring to traditional aggression or online aggression may change personal emotions, behavior and cognition and finally making him aggressive, so it is necessary for researchers to find out which factors influencing traditional aggression or online aggression of college students. Among many influencing factors, alienation and cyber-ostraccism were believed to be strong predictors, so the purposes of the present study is to explore the relationship between cyber-ostraccism, alienation, traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior as well as the mechanism the effect of cyber-ostraccism on traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior of college students. There were 600 college students selected from different universities, with 301 males and 221 females, the range of the age is from 18 to 26 years old. The questionnaires included the Cyber- ostracism Questionnaire(COQ), Online Aggressive Behavior Scale(OABS), General Alienation Scale (GAS), and Chinese College Students’ Version of Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ-CCSV). We used Spss 24.0 and Mplus7.4 to analyze the data, and the Bias-Corrected Percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the role of alienation between cyber-ostracism and online aggressive behavior and traditional aggression. The results show that: (1) The relationships between each pair of cyber-ostracism, alienation online aggressive behavior and traditional aggression are correlated significantly and positively, the coefficient ranges .18 from .91 (p < .01); (2) The structural equation model (SEM) reveals that the data veries the theoretical model(χ2/df=3.28, CFI=.95, TLI=.94, SRMR=.04, RMSEA=.06); (3) Cyber-ostracism has?a?significant direct?effect on traditional aggression (β =.19, p < .001, 95% CI: .11~.28); Cyber-ostracism has?a?significant direct?effect on alienation (β =.44, p < .001, 95% CI: .34~.53); Alienation has?a?significant direct?effect on traditional aggression (β =.65, p < .001, 95% CI: .55~.74); Cyber-ostracism has?a?significant direct?effect on online aggressive behavior (β =.47, p < .001, 95% CI: .38~.57); Alienation has?a?significant direct?effect on online aggressive behavior (β =.19, p < .001, 95% CI: .08~.30); (4) Cyber-ostracism has a significant indirect effect on traditional aggression through alienation , and the confidence interval of 95% is [.19, .37], Cyber-ostracism has a significant indirect effect on online aggressive behavior through alienation, and the confidence interval of 95% is [.02, .09], that is, Cyber-ostracism has a significant direct effect on traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior, and alienation plays a partial mediating role among them. It is concluded that in the structural equation model (SEM) of cyber-ostraccism and online aggressive behavior and traditional aggression of college students, alienation plays a partial mediating role. These findings may contribute to a better way to solve the realistic problems of college students’ traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior. Moreover, it can provide us some constructive suggestions and measures to eradicate college students’traditional aggression and online aggressive behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Charismatic Leadership and Military Team Performance: Interplay between Military and Political Commanders and Mediating Role of Morale Hai-Teng ZHU 2019, 42(5): 1217-1223.  Abstract ( )   PDF (867KB) ( )   The Information Operations necessitate the transformation of Chinese Army’s leadership style, including the transition from positional authority to charismatic leadership. Charismatic leadership plays a critical role at both elementary level and upper level in the army, whereas its dynamic mechanism is under-explored. In addition, the implementation of the dyadic leadership structure where military tasks and political work are assigned to two officers at an even level characterizes organizations of the PLA Army. Nonetheless, the potential extra effect produced by the interaction of two leaders remains to be scrutinized. In the context of a dual-leader team in the PLA, i.e., company, this study modeled a morale-mediated interaction framework to explore the joint impact of company commander(CC)’s and political instructor(PI)’s charismatic leadership on company performance, or the synergistic effect of dyadic charismatic leadership particularly. Three hundred and fifty cadets in a military academy who used to be soldiers participated in this study. They were invited to rate CC’s and PI’s charismatic leadership, global morale, and performance of their former company on a battery of questionnaires. A series of structural equation models were constructed with Mplus 7.4 software to test a few hypotheses. The main findings are as follows: (1) Dual charismatic leadership exerts an interacting effect on company performance (γ=-.19, p<.05). (2) Morale serves as a mediator linking CC’s and PI’s charismatic leadership to company performance (95% CI of the mediating effects are [.143, .435] and [.078, .320], respectively). (3) In the integrated model, dual charismatic leadership exerts an interacting effect on morale (γ=-.15, p<.05) but not on company performance (γ=-.10, p>.05), demonstrating the full mediating role of morale in the interplaying process (95% CI of the mediating effect is [.040, .122]). (4) According to simple slope tests, when PI’s charismatic leadership is at a relatively low level, CC’s charismatic leadership is significantly predictive of morale and company performance (b=.46 and .36, respectively, ps<.001). In contrast, when PI’s charismatic leadership is at a high level, CC’s charismatic leadership fails to predict neither morale nor company performance (b=.15 and -.03, respectively, ps>.05).The aforementioned results suggest that the interaction of CC’s and PI’s charismatic leadership on company performance is mediated by morale; specifically, the interaction highlights the emergence of positive effect of the high-charisma leader in partnership with a low-charisma leader. Nonetheless, the synergistic effect of dual high-charisma leaders turns out to be insignificant. In terms of theoretical contributions, this study develops a comprehensive model of charismatic leadership effectiveness in military teams, integrating the interaction of dyadic leadership with the mediation of team morale, which provides fresh insights into the underlying process and the interdependent nature of dyadic leadership in typical PLA grassroots units. Additionally, such findings have noteworthy implications for the selecting and positioning approaches of company leaders as well as the cultivation of extraordinary military units. In order to maximize dyadic leadership effectiveness, a low-charisma leader should be matched with a high-charisma counterpart so that the partners can achieve the complementation of leadership style and expertise. Furthermore, via the emotional path and motivational path, morale can bridge the gap between charismatic leadership and military team performance, which underlines the necessity of military leaders to fulfill their responsibility of enhancing subordinates’ positive emotions and inspiring team morale. Related Articles | Metrics

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Prohibitive Voice：Influence Factors and Implementation Effect 2019, 42(5): 1180-1185.  Abstract ( )   PDF (342KB) ( )   In recent years, prohibitive voice is an emerging topic in the field of voice behavior. It describes employees’ expressions of concern about work practices, incidents, and employee behavior that are harmful to their organization. Prohibitive voice can be regarded as an important factor for organizational health, because such alarming messages place previously undetected problems on the collective agenda to be resolved or prevent problematic initiatives from taking place (Liang, Farh, & Farh, 2012). Accordingly, prohibitive voice plays a key role in preventing team crisis and guaranteeing organizational security. Prohibitive voice with defensive properties can enhance regulatory effort in teams toward such loss-prevention and drive the team to strive for security-related goals. Therefore, it can improve the overall safety performance of the organization and exclude the hidden dangers in the organization. At the same time, in the Chinese context organization, the leader will suppress the voice of the subordinates by maintaining their own authority, which in turn easily stimulate the anti production behavior and aggravate the employees’ self-loss. Consequently, this study holds that suppressive suggestions have a double-edged sword effect on organizational management. As a result, it is important to stimulate employees’ suppressing suggestions in the organization, and avoid the negative effects of the suppressing suggestions. This study started with an explicit introduction about the concept and measurement of the prohibitive voice, and then made a systematic review about the empirical research at home and abroad. Specifically, first, the antecedents of prohibitive voice were divided into three aspects: characteristics and behavior tendency, psychological state and values, job characteristics and leadership behavior. The first two aspects reflect the regularity and consistency of individual behavior and thought, which is relatively stable over time, such as the Big Five personality characteristics, while the latter reflects the individual organizational situations, such as organizational structure and moral leadership. Second, we discussed the effects of prohibitive voice based on the pros and cons. On the one hand, it reduces the organizational task performance, suggesting it has a negative impact on the behavior in the work domain, such as counterproductive work behavior and deviant behavior. On the other hand, prohibitive voice increases the customer’s citizenship behaviors and safety performance. There are several future research directions about prohibitive voice. First, although individual differences and situational factors can be seen as key antecedents of prohibitive voice, few studies have focused on complete picture on the effects of individual differences and situations on prohibitive voice based on a comprehensive perspective. Therefore, future research should explore the antecedents of prohibitive voice from the perspective of the individual-situation interaction, making the causal link among variables become clearer and more accurate. Second, prohibitive voice has a double-edged sword effect on the organizational management. Thus, future research should deeply explore the boundary conditions of the effects of prohibitive voice. Third, compared with low-power distance cultural value, the influence factors of prohibitive voice may vary in the context of high-power distance cultural value. Future research should explore the cultural roots of employee prohibitive voice in Chinese organizations and further improve the Chinese localization contingency effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Pre-commitment: Theoretical Explanations and Neural Mechanisms Yan-Gang Nie Kai DOU 2019, 42(5): 1202-1208.  Abstract ( )   PDF (588KB) ( )   This study reviewed the concept, research paradigms, and theories of pre-commitment, and developed an integrated model to reveal its internal cognitive neural mechanisms. Pre-commitment is a kind of self-control strategy. It aids individuals to make a decision that facilitates long-term goals, thus inhibiting the choice of instant temptation and avoiding self-control failure. The deadline paradigm and the binding choice paradigm are the two research paradigms commonly used to examine pre-commitment. The deadline paradigm, including self-imposed deadlines and evenly-spaced-deadlines, requires participants to set a deadline as a pre-commitment that helps them persist on the goals. The binding choice paradigm helps participants overcome temptation via limiting the options that may elicit impulsiveness, which includes pre-commitment, delaying, and reward feedback phases. Currently there are three theories that account for pre-commitment, namely self-control strength model, neural network model and temporal difference reinforcement learning model. The self-control strength model assumes self-control as limited energy resource. Making a pre-commitment (e.g., goal setting) helps individuals reduce the consumption of self-control when resolving internal conflicts, thereby promoting the accomplishment of long-term goals. The neural network model assumes that pre-commitment helps resolve the conflicts between the higher brain (i.e., frontal lobe) and the lower brain (i.e., limbic system), which further strengthens their cooperation and improves self-control ability. The model consists of two simple feedback-forwarding multilayer artificial neural networks (ANNs), which represents that higher and lower brain systems work together for obtaining benefits. The temporal difference reinforcement learning (TDRL) is a calculation model of pre-commitment, which provides a specific computational assumption to explore the underlying mechanisms of the choice of pre-commitment and explains decision-making under complex circumstances. This study proposed an integrated model to explain the cognitive neural mechanism of pre-commitment. The model assumes that pre-commitment facilitates individuals to choose long-term benefits mainly via activating a number of brain regions including lateral frontopolar cortex (LFPC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) and posterior parietal cortex (PPC), and through recruiting a number of psychological mechanisms such as self-control, metacognition and value estimation. On the one hand, DLPFC and PPC, which are responsible for willpower, play a significant role in overcoming impulses caused by temptation. On the other hand, LFPC and vmPFC execute the function of metacognition and expected value, which renders individuals to make optimal choice by weighing the values of different plans. The functional connection between DLPFC and vmPFC reflects an interaction between self-control and estimation of value during the pre-committing processes. Future researches can focus on the advanced cognitive functions in the process of pre-commitment (e.g., category learning, working memory, creative reasoning, problem solving and attention transferring). In addition, it is necessary to explore more research paradigms and enrich the neural mechanisms of pre-commitment on regulating irrational decision-making. Finally, pre-commitment strategies may be applied to prevent adolescent negative social behaviors (e.g., internet addiction, aggression, dangerous driving, drug addiction, and antisocial behavior). Related Articles | Metrics

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The Formation of Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior: Test an Interactive Model 2019, 42(5): 1161-1166.  Abstract ( )   PDF (669KB) ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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An Event-related Potentials Study of Self-other Overlap Affecting Empathy for Pain 2019, 42(5): 1194-1201.  Abstract ( )   PDF (2105KB) ( )   Empathy for pain is a psychological phenomenon in interpersonal interaction. Previous studies have suggested the preference of empathy for pain, especially the priming effect of friends. But how do we perceive the pain of close friend and acquaintance when there is a different degree of overlap with ourselves? Therefore, the aim of the current study is to explore the cognitive mechanism of self-other overlap affecting empathy for pain by event-related potential study. This experiment was designed a 2(empathy judgement: pain, non-pain) × 3(self-other overlap degree: high, medium, low) within-subject study. Self-other overlap was manipulated by the name of the close friend, acquaintance and stranger. Prior to the experiment, the subjects needed to provide the names of close friends and acquaintances according to the instructions and filled in the Inclusion of Other in the Self (IOS) scale and Questionnaire for Personality Trait Assessment. At the beginning of the experiment, all subjects were told that they would first see the name stimuli (close friend, acquaintance, stranger), and followed by picture. The subjects were instructed to image the scene in the picture happening to the person mentioned earlier. Subsequently, they were instructed to immediately response to empathy judgement. There are 6 blocks in this experiment, each block has 60 trails, and 6 conditions are randomly presented, so there is a total of 360 trails. The ERP analysis time course is from the empathy judgment stimulus presentation (0-1000ms), with the first 200ms as the baseline period. Combined with the relevant research and the purpose of this study, the selected ERP components are: N1(120-160ms), N2 (220-280ms), P3 (360-430ms), LPP(450-650ms). In terms of behavioral data, the study found that the reaction time of the close friend condition was significantly smaller than the acquaintances and the accuracy rate of the close friend condition was significantly higher than the acquaintances and strangers. In the ERPs results, there were no significant main effects and interaction effect. N2 amplitude was decreased in the close friend condition of empathy judgement than acquaintances and strangers. The data showed a significant main effect of the amplitude of P3. Pain judgment elicited significant larger P3 and LPP amplitude than that of non-pain judgment. Meanwhile there was a significant interaction of self-other overlap and empathy judgement. Under the painful judgement condition, close friend condition elicited larger amplitude in P3 compared with acquaintances and strangers. The behavioral results showed that individuals were more sensitive to the pain of the close friend than the acquaintance. Close friend with more larger N2 amplitude and he early perceptual processing stage reflected in N2 was more likely to be a threat-detection stage. Furthermore，the increased P3 indicated that self-other overlap factors enhances top-down cognitive control and evaluation processing of empathy for pain. In conclusion, the early perception could discriminate degree of self-other with N2 is more likely to reflect a threat-detection stage and degree of self-other modulated the late cognitive control processing stage of empathy for pain. This study further improved the cognitive mechanism of the influence of self-other overlap on empathy for pain. Related Articles | Metrics

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To Work Better: The Definition and Mechanism of Recovery from Work 2019, 42(5): 1186-1193.  Abstract ( )   PDF (574KB) ( )   Recovery from work is not only an important guarantee for employees to cope with various work demands continuously and effectively, but also a key mechanism of resource replenishment to support employees to work better. Researchers have been seeking to shed light on the factors and mechanism that facilitate recovery. This paper focuses on the definition, influencing factors, and mechanism of recover from work. In addition, the future direction of recovery related research is prospected. Recovery refers to unwinding and restoration processes during which a person’s strain level that has increased as a reaction to a stressor or any other demand returns to its pre-stressor level. There are three representative views on the definition of recovery from work. One is to regard recovery as a life setting opposed to work, such as evening breaks, weekend life, vacations, etc. The second is to regard recovery as a process that refers to the activities and experiences beyond work. The basic recovery methods include passive recovery and active recovery. The former refers to the spontaneous recovery of resources through means of rest (sleeping) and relaxation; the latter refers to the reconstruction of resources by engaging in leisure, sports, social and other activities that can bring new resources. The third is to regard recovery as an outcome. It refers a person’s psychological or physiological state that is reached after a recovery period (e.g., at the end of a work break or in the morning before going to work). These three views on the definition of recovery are not conflicting, but with different focus. Conditions that contribute to recovery from work include sufficient recovery opportunities, good recovery environments, autonomous recovery activities, and effective self-regulation. Specifically, sufficient recovery opportunities mean that individuals have sufficient time to participate in recovery activities. Good recovery environments include both home environment and work environment that support individuals for recovery. Autonomous recovery activities refer to recovery activities driven by autonomous motivation rather than controlled motivation. Effective self-regulation means that individuals can focus on recovery activities during non-working hours. Conversely, work stressors, work related tele-pressure during non-work time, work centrality and work-related rumination after work are obstacles to recovery from work. The mechanism of recovery from work can be explained from different theoretical perspectives. The resource perspective (including the Effort-Recovery model and the Conservation of Resources theory) is cited most when discussing the mechanism of recovery. According to the resource perspective, the motivation for recovery comes from the need for individuals to alleviate and eliminate the stress response caused by the consumption of resources. And, any activities that can help prevent resources from being consumed and gain new resources are beneficial to recovery. The process perspective of recovery suggests that the ideal recovery process includes three phases: pre-recovery, passive recovery, and active recovery. The motivation perspective with the core of Self-Determination theory assumes that, only the autonomous motivation-driven recovery activities (such as hobby activities) can play the role of repairing and reconstructing the consumed resources, while the controlled motivation-driven activities are not beneficial to recovery. Work-family boundary/border theory believes that successfully recovery from work requires good recovery environments to provide protection, and the establishment of good recovery environments depends on the creation and maintenance of non-working areas (such as family) boundaries. Last, this paper also prospects the future research direction of recovery from work. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship Between Stressful Life Events and Adolescent’s Self-esteem: Mediating Roles of Passive Use of Social Network Site and Meaning of Life 2019, 42(5): 1155-1160.  Abstract ( )   PDF (610KB) ( )   Organizational research has uncovered that stress experience not only have negative aspects but also positive aspects on mental health, so we explored the effect of stressful life events on adolescent’s self-esteem in the similar frame. We hypothesized that stressful life events had a total positive effect on adolescent’s self-esteem, with positive effect through the mediating role of presence of meaning, negative effect through the mediating role of passive network using, and negative effect through the serial mediating role of passive network using and presence of meaning. 605 adolescents (304 males; M±SD=14.82±1.56) participated in the study. Using the Meaning of Life Questionnaire (MLQ), Adolescent Stressful Life Events Questionnaire (ASLEC), Passive Use of Social Network Use Scale (PUSNU) and Self-esteem Scale were used to survey adolescent students. The data was analyzed by SPSS 24.0 and Mplus7.4. The results showed that: (1) Stressful life events had a total positive effect on self-esteem (β=.20, p<.01). (2) Passive network using mediated the relationship between stressful life events and self-esteem (-.0254 Related Articles | Metrics

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Nudge Charity Donation by Setting Default Options Jia-Tao MA Hong-Yue SUN 2019, 42(5): 1174-1179.  Abstract ( )   PDF (492KB) ( )   Nudge improves decisions about health, wealth, and happiness by providing a simple, low-cost option framework. Default options, a widely discussed and used behavioral intervention, influence people's choices by presenting an option that has been chosen in advance for decision makers. Default options have shown to be effective in many areas of application (e.g., organ donation, retirement plans, among others). Considering that charity fundraising is costly and time-consuming, and few studies have examined the effect of default option on charity fundraising, we conducted three experiments to explore whether the strategy of setting default options could promote people’s donation behavior. In Experiment 1, we examined whether defaulting the option of “donating” or “not donating” a CNY 5 participation fee affected donation behavior. The participants were assigned randomly to one of the two conditions: defaulting to be a donor (DD) and defaulting not to be a donor (DND). In Experiment 2, we examined whether setting different amounts as defaults could affect donation behavior. We set CNY 10, CNY 15, CNY 20, CNY 25, and a blank cell (donors could decide whatever amount they wished to donate) as default donation options in different conditions. In Experiment 3, we intended to examine whether setting the default option at a larger amount would increase the average donation amount. The option settings were similar to Experiment 2, but the blank cell was removed, and CNY 0 and CNY 5 options were added, where choosing CNY 0 meant that participants chose not to donate and CNY 5 was used for maintaining the gradient of donation amounts and became the minimum donation option. Participants were randomly assigned to one of the three groups to make donation choices: control group (no defaulting), “default donation CNY 5” group in which the lowest donation amount was set to be the default, and “default donation CNY 25” group in which the highest amount was set to be the default donation. The results of Experiment 1 demonstrated that the donation rate and donation revenue were higher when “Donate to UNICEF” other than “Keep it for yourself” was set as the default option. The results of Experiment 2 showed that the strategy of setting default options generally promoted participants to select the default options, but not the average donation amounts. Experiment 3 found that setting the default at a high amount could bring a higher average donation amount than not defaulting or defaulting at a lower amount. Experiment 3 also found that the probability of selecting the default options increased, but the donation rate neither increased nor decreased. The overall results of the three experiments showed that the defaulting strategy could effectively promote the donation behavior of decision makers. Fund-raising collects hundreds of billions of RMB in the mainland of China annually. However, it is an arduous and costly effort. Our studies demonstrated that a defaulting strategy could raise donation revenue without adding extra costs through defaulting the donation option or defaulting the largest amount, which especially applies to increasingly popular Web-based fund-raisers. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Locus of Control on Job Search Behavior of Deaf College Students: Mediating Role of Career Maturity 2019, 42(5): 1209-1216.  Abstract ( )   PDF (674KB) ( )   Employment of college students is a hot issue of the whole society and livelihood issues, which is related to the future of students, the development of university education and social stability. Job search behavior is an important influence factor of employment, the more job search behavior, the greater the probability of successful employment. At present, the research on job search behavior at home and abroad mainly focuses on its structural measurement and predictive factors, and the objects of study are mostly ordinary groups, less involving special and disabled groups. Deaf college students gain more and more attention with the popularization of higher education and the development of special education in China. However, as a special group and vulnerable members of college students, deaf college students are easier to run into a stone wall in job search behavior. Therefore, it is of great practical significance to study job search behavior of deaf college students. Locus of control is one of the most interesting concepts in personality studies and an important influencing factor of job search behavior, it consists of internal control and external control. Locus of control had a positive correlation with job search behavior. Internal control individuals believe that the outcomes of the events are controlled by themselves, and they will invest more time and energy in job searching than external control individuals who hold the view that the outcomes are controlled by external forces. Career maturity is the core thought of career development, which can positively predict job search behavior. Generally speaking, the higher career maturity, the more job search behavior. In addition, locus of control has a positive correlation with career maturity. More concretely, the more internal control, the higher the career maturity, On the contrary, the more external control, the lower career maturity. That is to say, locus of control can impact career maturity and job search behavior, meanwhile, career maturity has a impact on job search behavior. Consequently,we can infer the predictive effect of locus of control on job search behavior is not entirely direct, but needs to be achieved through some intermediate variables, career maturity may be one of the important mediating variables. Based on this, we hypothesized that career maturity played a meditation role between locus of control and job search behavior. To test the hypotheses, we adopted the method of convenient sampling to investigate 386 deaf college students from four universities in Chongqing, Beijing, Jilin and Tianjin by using the locus of control questionnaire, career maturity scale and job search behavior questionnaires. All the data was analyzed with the software SPSS 19.0 and PROCESS. The Bootstrap method was used to analyze the mediating roles of career maturity. The results were showed as follows: (1) internal control had a significantly positive correlations with career maturity (p <.05) and job search behavior (p <.01). (2) career maturity played a partial mediating role between internal control and job search behavior. (3) the influence of career maturity between locus of control and job search behavior was a suppressing effect. Finally, we discussed the value, shortcomings and future research directions of this study. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Two Fundamental Dimensions and Subjective Well-being: the Mediation Effect of Future Time Perspective Wen-Fang HE Lv Houchao 2019, 42(5): 1167-1173.  Abstract ( )   PDF (705KB) ( )   Agency and communion are considered as two fundamental dimensions of social cognition. Agency is related to self-expressions and the pursuit of goals, while communion is related to social relations, such as kindness and honesty, and those that are related with moral judgments. Agency and communion play great roles in people’ cognition, affect experience and behavior. Studies have revealed that agency and communion would bring about significant positive impacts on mental health and life satisfaction, and are also closely related with the development of children’s self-esteem. What’s more, a good experience of subjective well-being is also one of the major desirable outcomes of positive agency and communion. Research documented that agency and communion significantly predicted subjective well-being, and subjective well-being increased with the increasing levels of agency and communion. Prior studies have focused mainly on the direct associations between agency, communion and subjective well-being. However, little is known about the underlying mediating mechanism (i.e. how agency and communion influence subjective well-being). To address this gap, the present study constructed a mediation model based on the Dual Perspective Model (DPM) and the adaptive mechanisms, to examine the effects of agency and communion on subjective well-being under the background of a large sample of Chinese subjects. Specifically, the present study would examine the mediating role of future time perspective (FTP), a relatively stable trait that reflects a general future orientation and plays an important role in dominating the individuals’ behaviors by striving for future goals and rewards, in the relation between agency, communion and subjective well-being. A sample of 4071 people completed a battery of self-report questionnaires measuring their agency and communion, subjective well-being and FTP. All the measures showed good reliability and validity in the present study. Data were analyzed using SPSS 22.0. The results were as follows: (1) agency and communion had significant positive correlations with FTP and subjective well-being (p<.01); and FTP had a significant positive relation with subjective well-being (p<.01); (2) After controlling for gender, age, education, marriage, yearly family income and social class, agency (β=.237, p<.001) and communion (β=.079, p<.05) significantly exerted direct effects on subjective well-being; and FTP (β=.405, p<.001) significantly exerted a direct effect on subjective well-being. (3) After controlling for gender, age, education, marriage, yearly family income and social class, agency (β=.054) and communion (β=.008) significantly exerted indirect effects on subjective well-being through the mediation of FTP. These results indicated that FTP served as a mediator effect between agency, communion and subjective well-being. The present study explores the direct effect size of agency and communion on subjective well-being based on the Dual Perspective Model, and highlights the mediating role of FTP in the effect of agency and communion on subjective well-being. It may contribute to a better understanding of the effects as well as its paths and conditions of agency and communion on subjective well-being. Moreover, it can also provide constructive suggestions for protecting and improving FTP and subjective well-being in the new era. Related Articles | Metrics

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New Methods to Balance Attribute Coverage for Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing 2019, 42(5): 1236-1244.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1423KB) ( )   The focus on cognitive diagnosis assessment (CDA) has become particularly intense in test theory research in recent years, which can provide detailed information about the strengths and weaknesses of examinees for specific content domains. Meanwhile, computerized adaptive testing (CAT) can provide equivalent or even higher accuracy in the measurement of an examinee’s latent skills, but with reductions in test length of up to 50%, compare to traditional paper-and-pencil testing. Recently, aiming to maximize the benefits of both CDA and CAT, researchers have attempted to combine the two, and naming cognitive diagnostic computerized adaptive testing (CD-CAT). During CD-CAT, many factors can affect the reliability and validity of the test, one of which is the balance of attribute coverage. It is very important to make sure that each attribute is measured adequately, or the reliability of the test will be reduced. Therefore, researchers have developed some attribute balance indices (ABIs) to satisfy the attribute coverage. While a shortcoming of both the ABI and revised ABI (RABI) is that they tend to select items that measuring single attribute, therefore, items measuring single attribute will be overused, as a consequence, an uneven distribution of item exposures will be raised. The improved ABI (IABI), on the contrary, inclines to select items that measuring all attributes even when the minimum number of items that measuring some specific attribute are satisfied. To overcome the shortcomings of these ABIs in some degree, two new attribute coverage control methods?modified ABI (MABI) and ratio of test length to the number of attributes (RTA)? are proposed in current study. To examine the performance of MABI and RTA, a Monte Carlo simulation was conducted. Five factors are manipulated: Number of attributes (4 and 6), test length (20 and 30 items), attribute coverage control method (without attribute coverage control [Non], ABI, IABI, RABI, MABI, and RTA), and item selection method (KL, PWKL, MI, and MPWKL methods), and model type (DINA, RRUM). There are 2 × 2 × 4 × 6 × 2 = 192 conditions in current study, of these, attribute coverage control method and item selection methods are within-group variable, and the rest are between-group variables. In addition, the covariates include number of items in the item bank (500 items), number of individuals, and distribution of item parameters. Furthermore, the minimum items measuring each attribute (Bk) are fixed as 4. The evaluate criteria are pattern correct classification rate (PCCR), attribute correct classification rate (ACCR), and the usage of k-attribute items. The results show that: (a) Methods with attribute coverage control (ABI, IABI, RABI, MABI, and RTA), in general, perform better than the method that without attribute coverage control (Non). (b) The ABI and RABI method produces higher PCCR and ACCR than MABI and RTA method in most conditions, while produces more uneven item usage than MABI and RTA. (c) The performance among IABI, MABI, and RTA are twisted each other under different conditions. (d) The IABI, MABI and RTA methods can deal with the trade-off between correct classification rate and item usage quite well. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Robustness of the Item-level Model Comparison Statistics in Cognitive Diagnostic Models 2019, 42(5): 1251-1259.  Abstract ( )   PDF (863KB) ( )   For the past decade, cognitive diagnostic models (CDMs) have received considerable attention as a psychometric model. A variety of specific and general CDMs with different assumptions about how an examinee’s latent attribute mastery pattern influence test performance have been developed in the literature. For example, the deterministic inputs, noisy “and” gate model (DINA), the deterministic inputs, noisy “or” gate model (DINO), the additive cognitive diagnostic model (A-CDM) are specific CDMs. The log-linear cognitive diagnosis model, the generalized DINA model (G-DINA) and the general diagnostic model are example of general CDMs. Although specific CDMs can be shown as special cases of the general models, selecting the most appropriate CDM at the item level is of great important to researchers and practitioners, since the correctly specified CDM can provide higher accurate attribute mastery pattern estimates than a general CDM. Under the conditions that the Q-matrix is correctly specified and the saturated model provides the best model-data fit, many methods are available for selecting the most appropriate CDM from the saturated CDM at the item level, such as the Wald and likelihood ratio (LR) tests. However, CDM is a simplification of reality, under the most circumstance if not all, CDMs seldom perfectly represent real world phenomena. It is reasonable to explore the robustness of item level model comparison statistics under model-data misfit condition. The primary purpose of this simulation study was to investigate the impact of the model-data misfit on the empirical performance of the Wald statistic based on the observed information (W_Obs) or the sandwich-type matrix (W_Sw), the LR statistic, and a new proposed Wald statistic computation method that is the Wald statistic based on the empirical cross-product information matrix (W_XPD) for item-level model selection with respect to the Type I error and power. Four factors were manipulated in the simulation: Four Sample Sizes times Three data generating models times Two Q-matrix Specification Types times Four item-level model comparison statistics. (a) Sample size: 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 5,000; (b) data generating model: DINA, A-CDM, G-DINA; (c) Q-matrix specification type: correctly specified and misspecified Q-matrices; (d) item-level model comparison statistic: W_XPD, W_Obs, W_Sw, LR. The attribute tetrachoric correlation was fixed to rho =.7, the test length and the number of latent attributes were fixed to J=30 and K=5, the summary of the Q-matrix misspecification is provided in Table 1. The intercept parameter lambda _{j,0} was fixed to .2, the main and/or interaction effect parameters were equally fixed to .7/n_j, n_j is the length of the main and/or interaction effect parameters. Binary observed response data was generated using the G-DINA framework. There were 300 replications in each combination. The model parameters were estimated using CDM package and the item parameter asymptotic covariance matrix was estimated using dcminfo package, the R codes are available upon request. The simulation results showed that: (a) When the Q-matrix was correctly specified, for the DINA model the W_Sw or LR test had better Type I error rate control, for the A-CDM the Type I error rates of the W_Sw or W_Obs were better than that of the LR or W_XPD. (b) Although the Q-matrix misspecification have shown negative impact on the Type I error rates of the W_Sw, among the four statistics investigated in this study W_Sw have the most robust performance across all the simulation conditions. (c) Interestingly, when the Q-matrix was misspecified, under most of the simulation conditions the performance of the W_XPD with respect to the Type error rate control was slightly better than W_Sw. We conclude that when the saturated GDINA provides a good fit to the response data, W_Sw can be used to select the most appropriate CDM at the item level, however, if the model does not fit data well enough, W_XPD might be a better choice. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Causal Information and Instruction on College Students' Bayesian Reasoning 2019, 42(5): 1245-1250.  Abstract ( )   PDF (481KB) ( )   In daily life, it’ s common for people to engage in Bayesian reasoning which means updating already existed beliefs according to new evidence. Bayesian reasoning has been widely applied into various fields such as psychology, medical treatment, and business. However, despite the wide usage of Bayesian reasoning, individual performance was surprisingly poor, as manifested by previous laboratory studies. In order to improve the Bayesian inference capacity, many researchers have investigated solutions from various aspects (e.g., data format, graphics assistance, and explicit nested set structure). One of the potential factors is causal information. Krynski and Tenenbaum proposed the causal Bayesian framework according to which reasoning consisted of three stages: model construction, parameter assignment and mathematical calculation. As to the “base-rate neglect”, a common bias observed in Bayesian reasoning tasks, they further argued that, the false positive rate in conventional study materials couldn't be completely understood, resulting in incorrect model construction; in contrast, problems with causal information might promote constructing proper model. However, subsequent studies couldn't reach an agreement on the validity of this assertion.This controversial result questions the ability of causal information to help people inference rationally. According to the "triple processing mind" model, the activation of introspective mind could suppress the intuitive beliefs (e.g., the transpositional representation bias in Bayesian reasoning), and then help subjects think more rationally. Hence, if instructed to reason introspectively (through instruction), individuals might be more likely to solve Bayesian problems. In consideration of the unstable effect of causal information and the triple processing mind model, causal information might only help people construct correct model, but only intuitively, while instruction could essentially facilitate rational process (including the correct modeling as a byproduct). Hence, instruction could be one of the potential factors; and this study assumes that, when participants receive both causal information and instruction, compared with other situations (with the absence of causal information and/or instruction), their performance would reach the highest. To test this hypotheses, 138 undergraduates were recruited to took part in the 2 (with or without causal information) × 2 (with or without instruction) between-subjects experiment. The dependent variable was Bayesian reasoning performance, with 2 criteria: the correction ratio and the accuracy. The results show that, under the accuracy criterion, the main effects of causal information (F(1,134)=6.06, p<.05, η2=.04) and instruction (F(1,134)=3.68, p<.05, η2=.03) are both significant, the interaction is also existed (F(1,134)=4.13, p<.05, η2=.03). Based on these results, we come to 3 conclusions: (1) causal information does promote the ability of Bayesian reasoning, but only without the presence of instruction ; (2) instruction has more robust facilitating effect, even if there is no causal information; (3) one the basis of instruction, causal information cannot bring more improvement . It can be seen that providing causal information can promote the accuracy of the Bayesian reasoning of the subject. And the second conclusion could provide support for our assumption about the mechanism of instruction effect. While the last one might indicate that, causal information has limited superiority for individuals at relative high metacognitive level. Related Articles | Metrics

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Critical Incidents in Supervision and the Impact on Professional Development of Trainee Counselors 2019, 42(5): 1260-1266.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1037KB) ( )   Stoltenberg (1981) proposed in the Integrated Development Model (IDM) that counselors show different characteristics in supervision at different stages of development. The trainee counselors are those who have already started to accept formal professional training but still lack skills and experience. The empirical research can explore how the supervisors conduct interventions to the trainee counselors and what is the effect of such a supervision, so as to provide a theoretical reference for improving the trainee counselors’ training program. The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) is a qualitative research method universally used in the psychological counseling and supervision studies. This method can focus on the most important and meaningful events, thereby eliminating the interference of other complicated information. Therefore, this study uses CIT to explore the domains and categories of the critical incidents occurred during the supervision process of the trainee counselors as supervisees, and to find what the supervision process impact on the professional development of counselors and how the impacts happen. The participants of this study include 4 pairs of supervisors and trainee counselors who are conducting the individual supervision at the mental health counseling center in a certain college of Nanjing, China. The research procedures are as follows. Firstly, the individual supervision process between each pair of supervisors and supervisees was live recording. Secondly, the participants were invited to fill out the "Critical Incident Questionnaire"(CIQ) immediately after each supervision, which includes the critical incidents in the supervision process and their corresponding thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Thirdly, within 48 hours after the supervision, the supervisors and the supervisees received about one-hour semi-structured interviews. Interview questions are included ⑴which were the most significant and impressive events in the last supervision? ⑵What was the main topic of discussion at that time? ⑶How did the supervisor conduct the interventions? ⑷How did the supervisee react? (5)What was the immediate effect? (6)Why do you think this event is important? A total of 18 interviews were conducted with 8 interviewees. Fourthly, interview data was analyzed by Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) methods. 3 researchers coded the data together. The results indicate that critical incidents of supervision which are helpful to the professional development of trainee counselors can be summarized into 4 categories: supervisory relationship incidents, intervention process incidents, conceptualization incidents, and personalization incidents. These incidents contribute to professional developments in the 8 domains of trainee counselors: intervention skills and capabilities, therapeutic plans and goals, case conceptualization, theoretical knowledge learning, evaluation skills, interpersonal evaluation skills, professional ethics, morality and laws, and acceptance of individual difference. The conclusion of this study is that supervision is rather important for improving the professional competency of trainee counselors. The supervisory relationship incidents, intervention process incidents, conceptualization incidents, and personalization incidents during the supervision process can promote the professional development of trainee counselors effectively. Due to the difficulty in sampling, the sample size of this study was relatively small, and the participants all came from the same counseling institution. In further study, a large number of supervisors and supervisees with different theoretical orientations should be selected among various counseling institution. Related Articles | Metrics

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Understanding Emotion in Situation among Children with Autism：Based on Implicit and Explicit Measurements 2019, 42(5): 1267-1273.  Abstract ( )   PDF (592KB) ( )   With regard to the deficits in emotion understanding, previous studies have obtained inconclusive and mixed findings. Moreover, most previous studies focus on face emotion recognition. They commonly use isolated facial expressions and ask participants to recognize the emotion. Nevertheless, in real-world interactions, individuals are unlikely to encounter a face without any social context and to be asked directly which emotion does someone feel. Actually, implicit processing of emotions is an important component of social interaction. Therefore, this study aims to use materials of continuously developing emotional situations with higher ecological validity and both implicit and explicit measurements to investigate the emotion understanding ability of autistic children. Twenty-one autistic children and 21 IQ-matched typically developing children (TDC) participated the experiment. In explicit task, materials were emotional situations selected from cartoons which children were familiar with. Each situation contained a sequence of 4 pictures describing one character and a simple situation. According to 20 undergraduates' rating of valence and arousal, these emotional situations were divided into 3 categories of valence: positive, negative, and neutral. In implicit task, the 4th picture of each sequence was replaced by a new picture of the same character but different situation, creating an inconsistent picture sequence. Materials in implicit task contained these inconsistent picture sequences as well as the original consistent sequences. Two groups of children completed both explicit and implicit tasks with 1 week apart and the order of tasks counter-balanced. In explicit task (emotion judgment), each participant was presented with consistent emotional situations randomly and asked to judge whether the protagonists' emotion was happy, unhappy or he don't know. In implicit task (consistency judgment), participants were presented with emotional situations randomly (half were inconsistent) and asked to judge whether the 4 pictures described the same situation. Results showed that: 1. In explicit task, the accuracy of emotion judgment in positive and negative situations for autistic children was significantly lower than that for TDC. Especially in negative situations, there was a significant deficit in emotion understanding for autistic children; 2. In implicit tasks, for both groups, the accuracy of consistency judgment in positive situations was significantly higher than that of neutral and negative situations; 3. The emotion understanding effects were calculated by subtracting the accuracy of neutral situation from that of positive or negative situations. The effect of positive situations for both groups and that of negative situations for TDC became weaker in implicit task. However, the effect of negative situations for autistic children wasn't different between explicit and implicit tasks (close to 0). To conclude, the findings of this study indicate that there are deficits in understanding negative emotion in both explicit and implicit tasks for autistic children. The present study provide new evidence and a new methodological perspective for exploring the emotion understanding among children with autism. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Concept and Manifestation of Mental Poverty and Its Interventions 2019, 42(5): 1224-1229.  Abstract ( )   PDF (356KB) ( )   In recent years, researchers in psychology have made significant progress in the study of poverty psychology. It has been found that the poor class is suffering from not only material poverty, but also mental poverty which is mainly manifested in aspiration failure and behavior failure. The social cognitive theory of social class, which can explain the main mechanism of aspiration failure, argues that the poor have less resources and stronger dependence on the outside factors, thus forming a social cognitive tendency of contextualism, and tending to think that their own lives are mainly influenced by situational factors. Therefore, the long-term state of poverty may make them lose their motivation to get themselves out of poverty. Further, the scarcity theory, which can explain the key mechanism of behavior failure, argues that chronic poverty creates a scarcity mindset among the poor, which makes them more focus on issues related to scarce resources, resulting in the lack of cognitive resource. Consequently, when the poor have to perform other tasks, their cognitive and executive functions will be impeded by the lack of cognitive resources, resulting in more impulsive behaviors and difficulties in making rational economic decisions that may help them getting out of poverty. In relation to “Aspiration Failure” and “Behavior Failure”, the researchers have developed conditional cash transfer projects, “transfer and persistence” psychological intervention strategies, and social class mobility belief intervention strategies Among these intervention programs, conditional cash transfer programs have been widely researched. Conditional cash transfer programs not only have a significant effect on alleviating scarcity mindset of poor people, but also on improving their educational aspiration. This is mainly because it directly alleviates the economic pressure of poor families, and the additional conditions change the recipient's belief in education. When poor households receive cash assistance, parents and children are more likely to adjust their educational goals because of increased demand for human capital. Besides, the increase in income directly affects educational input and indirectly affects family education expectations and goals. In addition, the economic assistance obtained has alleviated the scarcity mindset of the poor, and reducing the pressure limit can release more psychological resources, which makes people think about future and long-term investment, such as children's education, which enables them to establish longer-term goals. That is, conditional cash transfer projects increase the educational ambition of the recipients by releasing psychological resources. Finally, future researches in this field are discussed. On one hand, future research should combine the social cognitive theory of social class and the scarcity theory, construct an integrated model of mental poverty (including both aspiration and decision-making behavior), and explore deeply the mechanism resulting in mental poverty. On the other hand, researchers should strengthen the indigenous research. In short, exploring poverty from the perspective of mental poverty can help us have a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of poverty, and help the poor enhancing their ability of self-development, and breaking the cycle of poverty. Related Articles | Metrics

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The “Double-Edged Sword” Effect of Class Mobility and its Psychological Mechanism Yue ZHAGN Yi DING 2019, 42(5): 1230-1235.  Abstract ( )   PDF (306KB) ( )   Class mobility refers to the change of individual’s relative rank in a hierarchical society. Upward class mobility is widely believed to bring benefit to both individuals and societies. However, recent research has evidenced that upward class mobility has negative effects as well. In this review, we focus on the “double-edged sword” (i.e., both positive and negative) effect of class mobility and its psychological mechanisms on individual and society. At the individual level, people (especially for those lower-class members) would experience the cost of health and subjective well-being as a result of upward mobility. The acculturation thesis and dissociative thesis concerned and explained the positive and negative effect of upward class mobility, respectively. However, the status-based identity framework provided an integrated view for explaining the “double-edged sword” effect of class mobility. Specifically, upward class mobility would generate status-based identity uncertainties, which are circumstances that lead people to question and feel uncertain about their own identities. This kind of identity challenges would harm health and subjective well-being of individuals. At the societal level, the experience and perception of upward class mobility would lead people to underestimate and even tolerate social inequality, as well as be less likely to support redistribution policies. The societal effect of class mobility can be explained with internal attribution for the rich-poor gap as well as system justification belief. Specifically, when perceived higher class mobility, people may have greater tendency to internal attribution rather than external attribution of unequal wealth redistribution, which would lead people to less support redistribution policies. In addition, class mobility belief has also been conceptualized as a system-justifying ideology due to its focus on procedural fairness, that is, people believe that they are able to move up or down in a social hierarchy. Thus, class mobility perception is associated with more tolerance of social inequality and lower redistribution preferences. The study of class mobility and its influence is in the ascendant, and there are many points for further study. Firstly, the performance of class mobility perception in China should be clarified. As a result of increasing social inequality, people’s perception of class mobility may be threatened. In addition, methods of class mobility measures remains a matter of some debate, thus further research is needed to investigate the applicability of such measurement methods in China while improving the measurement methods. Secondly, future study should also focus on other psychological mechanisms of the effect of class mobility. For instance, we argue that class mobility would increase individual’s competitive and individualism preferences, which would lead to more self-interested motivations. Consequently, the competitive preference aroused by class mobility would be associated with more social isolation, as well as less support of redistribution policies. Lastly, future study should also explore interventions that could minimize the negative effects of class mobility. For example, a coherent and evolved status-based identity can be established with identity-based interventions, which can support individual’s health and well-being. Furthermore, some strategies (e.g., inequality frames and similarity focus) would be helpful to increase individual’s redistribution preferences as well. Related Articles | Metrics