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Effects of Cognitive Fatigue on Implicit Memory and Explicit Memory 2019, 42(6): 1282-1288.  Abstract ( )   PDF (544KB) ( )   Conventional wisdom indicated that implicit memory is a kind of automatic processing. However, recent studies found that implicit memory was more vulnerable to be distracted than explicit memory in some conditions. Therefore, it’s not clear on the processing mechanism of implicit memory. In order to find out this confusion, we can use variables that have different effects on the automated processing and controlled processing. Previous studies have found that cognitive fatigue would have a strong impact on the controlled processing, but less on automated processing. However, few studies have researched the effect of cognitive fatigue on implicit memory. So, does different effects of cognitive fatigue on the implicit memory and the explicit memory? Effects of cognitive fatigue on memory were assessed by drawing a comparison between the participants with cognitive fatigue condition and that without. We used lexical decision task and lexical recognition task to tested implicit memory and explicit memory, respectively. Thirty participants were recruited in the experiment. All of them participated in experiments on two occasions, 2 days apart at least, once in fatigue condition and once in rest condition. They carried out pre-test before formal test for ensuring the validity of the experimental results. The pre-test setting was same as the formal test. In fatigue condition, participants carried out pre-test first. After that, they carried out the fatigue task that contains 320 calculation questions. Then they carried out formal test. In the rest condition, participants rested between the pre-test and the formal test. Participants were instructed to make response to appropriate items by pressing keyboard. The Reaction Time and Accuracy data in retrieval phase were recorded, in order to assess implicit memory and explicit memory. Results showed that implicit memory performance declined under fatigue condition, but the explicit memory performance was not. In the explicit memory performance, the results of present study are consistent with previous results. Cognitive fatigue didn’t affect explicit memory [F(1,29)=0.119, p=0.732]. But implicit memory was affected by cognitive fatigue [F(1,23)=9.816, p＜0.01, ηp2=0.253]. The performance of implicit memory significantly decreased after the fatigue task. It reflected that implicit memory is more vulnerable to cognitive fatigue than explicit memory. In conclusion, results from the present study revealed that effects of cognitive fatigue on implicit memory and explicit memory were different. Implicit memory is more sensitive to cognitive fatigue than explicit memory. The results of present study are clearly inconsistent with the traditional views. Conventional wisdom thought that implicit memory was a kind of automatic processing, which could immune to effects of cognitive fatigue. But in present study, we found inverse results in which implicit memory retrieval was easier to be impacted than explicit memory by cognitive fatigue. These results revealed that although implicit memory is an automated processing. But it might own different features from other automated processing. This study firstly use cognitive fatigue to research the difference between implicit memory and explicit memory. And we found implicit memory is more vulnerable to cognitive fatigue than explicit memory. The present study provides support for further research on the processing mechanism of implicit memory. Related Articles | Metrics

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The object-based attention without awareness Zhu-Yang LI 2019, 42(6): 1319-1324.  Abstract ( )   PDF (355KB) ( )   Historically, it was generally believed that visual selective attention could operate on the space, which emphasized the spatial properties of attention. However, a seminal double-rectangle cuing paradigm (Egly et al., 1994) demonstrated that attention could also operate on objects. This paradigm has been widely used in the study of object-based attention. However, these studies mainly focused on how visible objects directed attention. Few studies focused on whether invisible objects could guide attention. In addition, previous studies have shown that visual attention could operate within a region of space or select a visual feature in the absent of awareness, which suggested that attention and awareness are distinct phenomena. However, the relationship between attention and awareness remains controversial currently, wherefore we hope to provide new evidence for the relationship between attention and awareness by examining the object-based attention effect without awareness. The present study explored the object-based attention without awareness by using a modified double-rectangle cuing paradigm. In experiment one, we made some improvements on the basis of Zhang’s (2012) study and explored whether the invisible intact rectangular object could affect the deployment of attention. In this experiment, each trial began with a fixation cross. After a delay of 500 ms, the cue was flashed for 100 ms at one of four locations where the target may appear, and then an 80-ms interstimulus interval. Following an interstimulus interval, invisible objects were presented for 16 ms. After that, an 80-ms interstimulus interval was followed by the target (red or green circle) presented for 150 ms. Participants were asked to judge the color of the target. After judging, participants needed to answer two questions. It was found that the invisible intact rectangular object could guide the deployment of attention. To our knowledge, there were no studies to explore whether the invisible perceptual object could guide attention. Therefore, in experiment two, we examined whether the invisible perceptual rectangular object could affect the deployment of attention as an invisible intact rectangular object did. The experimental procedure was similar to experiment one except that invisible perceptual rectangular objects was presented for 32 ms. It was found that the invisible perceptual rectangular object could also direct the deployment of attention. Before the formal experiment, stimulus contrast was calibrated for each participant in order to maintain the level of awareness near the threshold. During the first calibration phase, the block began with 0.047 Michelson contrast. If the mean percentage of accuracy was higher than 55%, the lower contrast level was used during the next block. Conversely, if the mean percentage of accuracy was lower than 45%, the higher contrast level was used during the next block. After the appropriate contrast level was found, the calibration block was repeated with the same Michelson contrast in order to ensure that performance keep stable. The results of the present study suggested that the object-based attention effect persisted in the absent of awareness, regardless of whether the boundary contour was intact. What’s more, these results provide new evidence for the relationship between visual attention and visual awareness. Related Articles | Metrics

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Preview Processing of One-character Words and Two-character Words: No Effect of Word Highlighting 2019, 42(6): 1298-1304.  Abstract ( )   PDF (742KB) ( )   Preview effects have been found in Chinese and alphabetic languages. However, previous studies showed that the preview effect in Chinese was greater and larger than alphabetic languages (Vasile & Angele, 2017). In Chinese, there is no word boundary information between words. A Chinese character can be formed by a word independently or combined with other Chinese characters into a word. While processing the current fixed character(s), Chinese readers may preview more character(s) to determine the position of word boundary in advance, thus increasing the preview effects (Yen et al., 2009). However, Sheridan et al. (2016) compared preview processing in a normal text condition contained spaces with an unsegmented text condition contained random numbers instead of spaces and larger preview effects were found for normal condition than unsegmented text condition. Present study further explored the influence of word demarcation information on preview processing. In the present study, we recorded readers’ eye movements to explore the influence of word demarcation information on preview processing for one-character words and two-character compound words. The one-character words were also the first character of two-character compound words. We adopted the boundary paradigm (Rayner, 1975) to manipulate the target words presented normally or replaced by a pseudocharacter for previews. Instead of word space, we adopted word highlighting to demarcate word boundary. As Cui et al. (2014) stated, inter-word spaces provide word boundary information while also reducing word boundary masking. Moreover, according to Bai et al. (2008), word spacing condition will increase the length of the sentence, which will affect the sensitivity of vision and then influence the fixation position and fixation duration. This research used the Eyelink 2000 eye tracker which has 1000Hz sampling rate. The experimental material was presented on a 19-inch flat screen display with a refresh rate of 150 Hz and a resolution of 1024 pixels×768 pixels. There were six practice sentences to help the participants familiarize with the experimental procedure. In addition, in the formal experiment, every three sentences were followed by reading questions to ensure that the participants could read the sentences carefully by asking the participants to judge "yes" or "no". Firstly, consistent with the findings of Bai et al. (2008), the results indicated that word highlighting could facilitate the processing of one-character words and two-character compound words, participant read word highlighting condition faster than normal condition. Secondly the results indicated that the preview effects of two-character compound words were greater than one-character words. Thirdly the results showed that word highlighting did not affect the preview effects for neither one-character words nor two-character compound words. These results are consistent with the model of word segmentation and word recognition (Li et al., 2009), which proposed that the character in the visual field be processed in parallel. When the target words are recognized, the word boundary information is also recognized; consequently, word highlighting did not affect the preview effects for neither one-character words nor two-character compound words. Totally, word boundary information is not the most fundamental reason for the preview processing differences between Chinese and alphabetic languages. We still need to further explore the reasons from more deeply cognitive processing to explain preview processing differences between Chinese and alphabetic languages in following studies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The differential effects of disgust and fear on intertemporal choice: an ERP study 2019, 42(6): 1305-1311.  Abstract ( )   PDF (730KB) ( )   Intertemporal choice requires people to trade-offs between costs and benefits that occur at different points in time. In real-life situations, emotional experiences are ubiquitous. Many decisions need to be made in a variety of incidental emotional states that are independent of decision-making tasks. Most researchers have taken a valence-based approach to examine how incidental emotions affect intertemporal choice. Recently, there has been an increased interest in investigating the influence of incidental specific emotions on intertemporal choice. However, few studies explore whether distinct emotional states of the same valence might have different effects on intertemporal choice. Disgust and fear are two kinds of negative emotions that are common in life. Although there were similar emotional valence and arousal level, disgust and fear are distinct in many aspects. First, their biological meanings are different. Second, their physiological bases are different. Third, their cognitive functions are different. Therefore, the present study focused on the effects of disgust and fear on intertemporal choices by using event-related potential techniques (ERPs). Twenty healthy volunteers participated in the present study. Disgust and fear were primed by emotional face images which were selected from Taiwanese Facial Expression Image Database (TFEID); We administered a modified version of intertemporal choice task, in which participants made a series of hypothetical choices between immediate rewards and delayed rewards. This study recorded and then analyzed the differences of ERP components in the evaluation stage of intertemporal choice task, thereby examining the processing mechanisms of disgust and fear affecting intertemporal choice. The behavioral results showed that disgust prime yielded significantly higher percentage of immediate reward choices than neutral prime. The ERP results showed that during the evaluation stage, disgust prime evoked larger P2 and P3 than neutral prime and fear prime; For the LPP, disgust prime evoked a larger LPP than neutral prime and fear prime in left and center electric sites, whereas disgust prime evoked a larger LPP than fear prime in right electric sites. In the present study, the longer the reward wait time, the greater the risk that is not available, and the delayed reward is considered as a risky, incomplete option. Therefore, disgust prime induced individuals to avoid risks and losses, and thus prefer to choose immediate rewards. Previous ERP studies on cognition and decision-making showed that the P2 might reflect stimulus evaluation and aquick assessment, and the P3 and LPP is regarded as a measure of motivational significance in the decision-making literature. In the present study, the larger P2, P3, and LPP in disgust prime might be correlated with the motivational evaluation process involved in the integration of time and reward information. In conclusion, the present study found that disgust prime motivated individuals to prefer immediate rewards, whereas fear prime did not change the choice preference. For the ERP results, there were different in the P2, P3, and LPP during the evaluation stage. These findings suggest that relative to neutral and fear prime, disgust prime motivates individuals to place more attention and motivation renounces to evaluate the choices, and then makes them to choose the immediate rewards. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Similarity on Representations in Visual Working Memory for Individuals with Different Cognitive Styles 2019, 42(6): 1289-1297.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1125KB) ( )   Similarity promotes the integration of visual information and reduces the load of representations in working memory during the encoding stage, and improves the visual working memory performance. Researchers have found that spatial visualizers’ performance decreased evidently from short delay to long delay in a high-load condition, while object visualizers performed stably. This advantage results from the higher neural efficiency of object visualizers than spatial visualizer during the retention stage rather than encoding stage in visual working memory. However, whether similarity affects the representations of visual working memory for object visualizers and spatial visualizers is still unclear. The purpose of the present study is to investigate how similarity modulates the performance of object and spatial visualizers and the mechanism of object and spatial visualizers’ representation in visual working memory. In the current study, we used Object-Spatial Imagery Questionnaire –Revised to categorize participants into object visualizers and spatial visualizers. The experimental materials were squares with similar or dissimilar colors. Utilizing the change detection paradigm, we designed two experiments. In experiment 1, we adopted 2(cognitive style: object visualizer, spatial visualizer) × 2(similarity: similar, dissimilar) × 2(delay: 1000ms, 3000ms) mixed design. In experiment 2, we adopted 2(cognitive style: object visualizer, spatial visualizer) × 2(similarity: similar, dissimilar) mixed design and the delay was 3000ms. Cognitive style was a between-subject factor, and the other variables were within-subject factors. The accuracy rate was recorded in two experiments, and the event related potential (ERP) was recorded in experiment 2 during the retention stage of working memory. The behavioral results showed that the accuracy in similar condition was significantly higher than that in the dissimilar condition, as well as that in short delay condition than long delay condition. Most importantly, a significant interaction among delay, similarity and cognitive style was observed. In the similar condition, there was no obvious differences between object visualizers and spatial visualizers in both short and long delay conditions. In the dissimilar condition, there was no difference between object visualizers and spatial visualizers in the short delay condition, whereas object visualizers have higher accuracy than spatial visualizers in the long delay condition. The result suggested that object visualizers performed more stable than spatial visualizers in maintaining dissimilar objects as the time went by. The ERP results showed that larger negative slow cortical potentials were evoked for spatial visualizers than object visualizers in the dissimilar condition rather than the similar condition, which suggested that spatial visualizers spent more cognitive resources than object visualizers at the retention stage of working memory in the dissimilar condition. Taken together, these findings have revealed that the object visualizers have advantages while processing the dissimilar objects instead of the similar objects in visual working memory compared to the spatial visualizers. The underlying mechanism is that object visualizers have higher neural efficiency than spatial visualizers during the retention stage of dissimilar objects in visual working memory. Related Articles | Metrics

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Are Optimists Positive and Pragmatic? The Evidence from Distractor Inhibition on Emotional and Neutral Words Yonghui Wang 2019, 42(6): 1312-1318.  Abstract ( )   PDF (534KB) ( )   Optimism is an important concept in Positive Psychology. Scheier & Carver (1985) proposed the concept of dispositional optimism, which refers to the personality traits that have a total positive expectation for the future. Previous studies have shown that optimists are more positive in their lives, can focus on the problem itself, and strive to seek the solutions that results in higher achievement and healthier state. Therefore, some researchers began to explore the cognitive mechanisms under the positive behaviors of optimists. Emotional words were used previously as distractor to examine whether optimists can effectively suppress them in order to explore the attention characteristics of optimists. However, previous studies have the following three shortcomings. Firstly, they used the Stroop paradigm, in which obvious interference was missing between the word’s color and its meaning. Secondly, previous studies did not answer whether optimists could suppress the neutral information. Finally, the past studies investigated the distractor suppression of emotional information by the dichotomy of optimistic and pessimistic which could not provide the dynamic changes of suppression on the different optimism levels. . Because of the complexity on groups and conditions, this present study examined the distractor inhibition of optimistic, neutral, and pessimistic subjects through two experiments. Positive and negative emotional words are used in Experiment 1, while the neutral (living and non-living) words in Experiment 2. In first, we filtered out 54 optimistic, neutral and pessimistic participants respectively by the Life Orientation Test-Revised which was randomly divided into two groups to participate in our Experiment 1 (24 people per group) and Experiment 2 (30 people per group) respectively. Participants were asked to respond to the prime and probe target for the positive or negative judgment in Experiment 1 and for a living and non-living judgment in Experiment 2. The target in the prime and probe display is red, and the distractor is green which are located directly above or below the fixation point randomly. Experiment 1 was designed using a 2×2×3 three-factor mixed design. The within-subjects variables were the valence of emotional word for probe target (positive, negative) and the prime condition (consistent valence, inconsistent valence); the between-subjects variable was group (optimistic, neutral, pessimistic). Experiment 2 was designed using a 2×3 two-factor mixed design. The within-subjects variables were the relationship between the prime distractor and the probe target (consistent category, inconsistent category); the between-subjects variable is group (optimistic, neutral, pessimistic). The result of Experiment 1 was that the optimistic group had a significant negative effect when the prime distractor was a negative emotion word, the pessimistic group had a significant negative effect when that was positive, and whether the prime distractor is positive or negative, the significant negative effects was observed in the neutral group. In experiment 2, the optimistic group did not show a negative prime effect, and both the pessimistic and the neutral group showed significantly negative effects. The present study demonstrates that optimists do not implement distractor inhibition on the positive and neutral information. It may be related to the maintenance of attention on these stimuli and the positively cognitive patterns of optimists. This study provides some evidences for the positive and pragmatic behavior of optimistic individuals. Related Articles | Metrics

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Maternal Gatekeeping Behavior and Father-adolescent Attachment: The Mediating Role of Father Involvement Shengqi Zou Bin-Bin HUANG 2019, 42(6): 1361-1367.  Abstract ( )   PDF (456KB) ( )   Maternal gatekeeping behavior refers to mother’s effort in facilitating and inhibiting father-child interaction, which represents the executive function of coparenting on family life. Enormous study have conducted to explore the effect of maternal gatekeeping behavior on father-child interaction and father-child relationship, while these study mainly focused on the infant or young children family, and little attention has been paid to the core feature of father-child relationship—father-child attachment. Thus, the main purpose of this study was to extend previous studies and explore the effect of maternal gatekeeping behavior on father-adolescent attachment. Furthermore, family system theory indicate that there are direct and indirect path from maternal gatekeeping behavior to father-adolescent attachment. Empirical research found that maternal gatekeeping behavior, including gate-closing and gate-opening behavior was related to father involvement, and father involvement have strong contribution on child development. Accordingly, the second purpose of this study was to explore the mediating role of father involvement between maternal gatekeeping behavior and father-adolescent attachment. A total of 597 nuclear family (father, mother and one adolescent of each family) were recruited from Beijing, Henan and Guangdong Province. They were asked to complete self-report questionnaire, including mother reported Maternal Gatekeeping Scale (Puhlman, 2013), father reported Father Involvement Inventory(Wu et al., 2015), and adolescent reported Mother-child Attachment Sub-scale of Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment(Armsden & Greenberg, 1987). The data was analyzed using correlation analysis, structural equation modeling by SPSS 21.0 and Mplus 7.11. Correlation analysis showed that maternal gate-opening behavior was positively related to father-adolescent attachment and father involvement; on the contrary, maternal gate-closing behavior was negatively related to father-adolescent attachment and father involvement. Besides, father involvement was positively related to father-adolescent attachment. Structural equation modeling showed that the total effect of maternal gate-opening behavior and gate-closing behavior on father-adolescent attachment was significant. More precisely, maternal gate-opening behavior have positive predicating role on father-adolescent attachment, and maternal gate-closing behavior have negative predicating role on father-adolescent attachment. Furthermore, father involvement had partial mediating role between maternal gatekeeping behavior and father-adolescent attachment. Maternal gate-opening behavior was correlated with higher level of father involvement, which ultimately predicated higher quality of father-adolescent attachment, and on the contrary, maternal gate-closing behavior was correlated with lower level of father involvement, which ultimately predicated lower quality of father-adolescent attachment. This study extended the research of the effect of maternal gatekeeping behavior to attachment field, and explored the ignored effect of maternal gatekeeping behavior. The implication of this study is that mothers as the primary-caregiver of the children and the manager of family life have important role on the emotional linkage between fathers and adolescents. In daily parenting children with their spouse, mothers should exhibit more positive encourage and facilitate behaviors to their spouse, meanwhile, they also should inhibit their negative control and undermining behaviors. Besides, fathers improve their levels of involvement is also an effective way to promote their emotional linkage with their children. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Perceived parent-child Facial Resemblance on Child Abuse: A Moderated Moderating Model 2019, 42(6): 1332-1339.  Abstract ( )   PDF (694KB) ( )   Previous studies showed that Childhood maltreatment is closely correlated with negative psychological and behavioral outcomes. However, why adult human harm their children? Maybe， evolutionary psychology could offer a reasonable explanation. Human fertilization occurs internal within females, and females are nearly 100 percent assured of their genetic contribution to their own offspring. However, males face fierce competition in mating, and that their mates may mate with other males before or after the marriage. Thus, males are never fully certain that their putative children are their biological offspring, males are face with the risk of paternal uncertainty and they unconsciously seek indirect and direct cues to assess their paternity. A male’s perception of facial resemblance between himself and his offspring is one direct cue for identifying whether he has a blood relationship with his offspring. Previous studies showed that the more similar the facial characteristics between fathers and their children are, the more resources males invest in their offspring; and the greater investment made by a male in his mate (an indirect investment in offspring), the lower rate of domestic violence. Nevertheless, human behaviors are not only influenced by evolutionary mechanisms but also by social and cultural contexts. In the context of Chinese culture, traditional views hold that males, but not females, are supposed to carry on the family line and take the responsibility of helping aging parents and providing proper burial. Thus, we argue that patriarchal culture in China will enhance the relationship between father-son facial resemblance and child abuse, while suppressing the same relationship between fathers and daughters. This study recruited 212 high school students as participants (87 boys, 125 girls, the average age was 15.94 years, SD = 0.56 years), and measured perceived father-child facial resemblance, the child abuse, and demographic variables to explore the effect of parent?child facial resemblance on the child abuse in a traditional patriarchal cultural context in China. This study found that (a) perceived father-child facial resemblance significantly affected father’s mental abuse; (b) child’s gender further moderated the effect of perceived father-child facial resemblance on father’s mental abuse, when offspring were boys, the effect of perceived father-child facial resemblance on father’s mental abuse was significant, however, when offspring were girls, the effect was not significant. Those results demonstrated that offspring’s gender moderated the relationship between perceived parent-child facial resemblance and child abuse, which not only supported but also enriched the theory of paternal uncertainty. The limitation and further research were discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Relationship between work engagement of dual-earner couples and academic engagement of their middle school students 2019, 42(6): 1368-1374.  Abstract ( )   PDF (720KB) ( )   Although the notion that work engagement, a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption, can cross over from one individual to his or her spouse has been around for decades, there has been little, if any, empirical research on the relationship between dual-earner couples’ work engagement and their children’s academic engagement. The Conservation of Recourse (COR) theory posits that individuals are intrinsically motivated to obtain, retain, foster, and protect resources they value, and they will invest resources in significant others to produce an anticipated return. Based on this theory, we argue that dual-earner couples’ work engagement is positively related to their children’s social support and academic self efficacy, which can be considered as a resource investment process; Children’s social support and academic self efficacy, in turn, are positively related to their academic engagement, which can be considered as a resource gain process. Thus, we establish a mediation model linking dual earners’ work engagement and their children’s academic engagement with children’s social support and academic self efficacy as the mediators. In order to verify this model, a total of 326 dual earner families were recruited in Hunan Province on a voluntary basis. The couples were requested to fill in the questionnaires measuring work engagement and social economic status, and their children were requested to fill in the questionnaires measuring academic engagement, social support from their parents, and academic self efficacy. The correlation analysis shows that most correlations between variables of interest in this study are significant (p < .05) and in the expected direction, and the confirmatory factor analysis shows that the hypothesized model fits the data very well ( = 234.45, df = 162, RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.94, TLI= 0.93). After controlling for some important individual-level variables (e.g., sex, age, and social economic status), dual earner couples’ work engagement are positively related to their children’s social support (γ=0.41, SE = 0.08, p < 0.05; γ=0.46, SE = 0.09, p < 0.05) and academic self efficacy (γ=0.19, SE = 0.07, p < 0.05; γ=0.19, SE = 0.07, p < 0.05) , which in turn are positively related to their academic engagement (γ=0.18, SE = 0.07, p < 0.05; γ=0.19, SE = 0.09, p < 0.05; γ=0.27, SE = 0.11, p < 0.05), indicating that children’s perceived social support and academic self efficacy play a mediating role in the relationship between dual-earner couples’ work engagement and their children’s academic engagement.The bootstrap analysis further shows that there is a significant gender difference between fathers and mothers in the mediating effect for social support (BC95% CI = [-0.14, 0.10], p > 0.05) and academic self efficacy (BC95% CI = [-0.06, 0.07], p > 0.05). A better understanding of the relationship between dual-earner couples’ work engagement and their children’s academic engagement is of theoretical and practical importance. Theoretically, this study suggests that the effect of dual earner couples’ work engagement on their children’ academic engagement can be re-conceptualized as a resource investment and gain process. Also, this study can have important managerial implications for family education. It becomes clear from our study that children’s academic behavior can be affected by their parents’ work behavior, which emphasizes the importance to take into account parents’ work environment and behaviors in dealing with children’s academic behaviors. Related Articles | Metrics

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Rapid Automatized Naming(RAN) Deficit in Developmental Dyslexics 2019, 42(6): 1375-1381.  Abstract ( )   PDF (375KB) ( )   As a core deficit of developmental dyslexia (DD), the rapid automatized naming (RAN) deficit has been widely proved in English and Chinese language studies, which shows slower naming speed compared with peers in RAN task. RAN task is a cognitive task that requires naming series of highly familiar stimuli, such as alphanumeric. As a complex process with multiple sub-components just as reading, the nature of rapid naming defects in developmental dyslexia remains controversial. Although many studies have focused on the essential of RAN deficit in DD, the controversy still exists. Recently researchers have used various methods to explore the RAN deficit of DD including eye-tracking technology, event-related potential (ERP) and functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI). In this review, different kinds of RAN tasks and their characteristics are introduced, including alphanumeric RAN and non-alphanumeric RAN, Chinese character RAN and letter RAN, serial RAN and discrete RAN. Each RAN task has its own traits and should be noted. The internal mechanism of RAN deficit in DD was then summarized. It has been shown in previous studies that DD is difficult in processes of eye-movement such as parafoveal processing and foveal processing. The cognition difficulties of DD are also introduced. Some researchers believe that the difficult of parafoveal processing is the main reason of RAN deficit in DD. However, it is still unclear whether less parafoveal preview benefits and more parafoveal load costs causes difficulties in processing the fovea. It should be noticed that DD is sensitive to the parafoveal preview information. On the other hand, other researchers believe that the foveal processing of DD is the main cause of RAN defects. They believe that RAN deficit is due to the poor automated translation of visual symbols processing in foveal processing. More attention to resource allocation for foveal processing results in less parafoveal previewing processing. Besides, some researches also explored the difficulties in cognition of RAN task in DD. Specifically, both working memory and inhibition ability are important to the processing in RAN task. In summary, the RAN deficit of DD at least resulted from difficulties in numerous aspects, and the complexity of RAN deficit in DD is undisputed. Based on the above review, some future research directions were given. Firstly, the explanations based on the mature people are questionable. Secondly, the brain imaging is beneficial to obtain different RAN subcomponents and should be paid more attention. Thirdly, most researches of parafoveal preprocessing was based on adults and future studies could expand the utilization of parafoveal preview information in beginning readers and DD children. Finally, although RAN tasks have been widely used to predict reading ability in children in Europe and America, there is no Chinese version. Therefore, further studies of RAN in Chinese should be carried out in the future. In brief, RAN is a complex task with a simple surface but many subcomponents. Therefore, the complexity of RAN deficit in DD should be noticed and different methods should be used in future studies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Maternal Rejection and Peer rejection : A Mediated Moderation Model 2019, 42(6): 1347-1353.  Abstract ( )   PDF (701KB) ( )   Abstract Previous research showed that child’s peer rejection was influenced by parenting. Maternal rejection is defined as mothers who ignore or neglect children, refuse or abuse children, and vehemently deny children's behaviors. However, little is known about the relationship between maternal rejection and peer rejection up to present. Thus, the first aim of this study is to examine the relationship between maternal rejection and peer rejection. Moreover, less is known about the mechanisms underlying the associations between maternal rejection and peer rejection. Peer rejection was influenced by many factors. Househood chaos was an important aspect of the family dynamic environment, which would interfere with the implementation of optimal parenting behaviors and might affect the children's development adaptation outcomes. Previous studies showed that the degree of inconsistency in the family environment was an important background could affect parent-child relationships. Therefore, the current study aims to examine the moderating effects of househood chaos in the associations between maternal rejection and peer rejection. In addition, children have subjective initiative, and children's own subject variables might mediate the moderating effect of househood chaos. We further tested whether the moderating effect of househood chaos might be mediated by child problem behaviors. In this study, 393 children (198 girls, 195 boys) with the mean age of 11.32±0.88 and their parents participated in our research. Children finished a self-reported Short-form Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran for Chinese (S-EMBU-C) questionnaire, and was obtained peer rejection through peer nomination. Parents finished Confusion, Hubbub and Order Scale (CHAOS), Child Behavior Check List (CBCL) and Family Socioeconomic Status Scale (SES). This study examined the associations between maternal rejection, househood chaos, child problem behaviors and peer rejection. Meanwhile, hierarchical regression analyses were used to examine the moderating role of househood chaos and the mediating role of child problem behaviors in the relationship between maternal rejection and peer rejection. Our findings were as follows:(1)After controlling gender, grade, family socioeconomic status (SES), maternal rejection could significantly predict peer rejection;(2)Househood chaos acted as a moderator between the relationship of maternal rejection and peer rejection, children lived in high househood chaos showed significantly higher peer rejection relative to children lived in low househood chaos, and ability of maternal rejection to predict peer rejection was weakened for children under low househood chaos;(3)Additionally, the moderating effect of househood chaos was completely mediated by child externalizing problem behavior. In conclusion, househood chaos would moderate the associations between maternal rejection and peer rejection. Furthermore, this moderating mechanism was mediated by child externalizing problem behavior. Our findings integrated the mediating and moderating models providing a more comprehensive interpretation to understand how and when maternal rejection impacts peer rejection. Our findings also provided a theoretical and empirical bias for others to study the complicated relationship between maternal rejection and peer rejection. In addition, results from this study highlighted the importance of maternal negative behaviors and family physical environment simultaneously, which broaden our understanding of the processes between parenting behavior and peer relationship. Related Articles | Metrics

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Why Are Undergraduates from Lower-class more likely to Experience Social Anxiety?The Multiple Mediating Effects of Psychosocial Resources and Rejection Sensitivity Xiao-Xin LI REN ZhiHong 胡小勇 2019, 42(6): 1354-1360.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1053KB) ( )   The problem of social anxiety among Chinese undergraduates is serious. Previous studies have indicated that social anxiety was more prone to occur among lower-class individuals. However, the psychological mechanism has not been fully explored yet. Social cognitive theory of social class interprets the association between individuals’ social class and healthy condition, which proposes that lower-class individuals are much easier to be influenced by external environment because they have less supports and more threats. Thus, they have higher threat sensitivity and more negative emotions. Additionally, the reserve capacity model showed the effect and mechanisms of social class on individuals’ health conditions. According to reserve capacity model, psychosocial resources are tangible, interpersonal and intrapersonal energy that can be used to cope with daily life pressure. Unfortunately, lower-class environment may expose individuals to more stressors while equipping them with less psychosocial resources. Therefore, we hypothesized the multiple mediating effects of psychosocial resources and threat sensitivity between social class and mental health. The present study aimed to testify the multiple mediating effects of psychosocial resources and rejection sensitivity between family social class and social anxiety. The present study recruited 1400 undergraduates and adopted the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Class, Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire, Liebwitz Social Anxiety Scale and self-report measures of psychosocial resources. Given previous studies have found optimism, mastery, self-esteem, and extraversion are most related to beneficial outcomes, psychosocial resources were measured by life orientation test-reversed, a measure of dispositional optimism; scale of sense of control, the Rosenberg self-esteem scale, the extraversion subscale of the Eysenck personality Inventory. We also collected the information about parents’ occupation, education level, and monthly family income, which were used as the indexes of objective social class. The results of bootstrap process analysis revealed that: (1) Family social class significantly predicted psychosocial resources (?=0.967，p < .001) and rejection sensitivity(?=-.145，p < .001) ; (2) When the mediate variables enter the equation, the effect of family social class on social anxiety turned out insignificant(?=-.487，p >.05) ; (3) Psychosocial resources significantly predicted rejection sensitivity(?=-.109，p < .001), and social anxiety(?=-.955，p < .001). Rejection sensitivity significantly predicted social anxiety (?=1.267，p < .001) ; (4) Bootstrap mediation analysis suggested that three mediate paths were all significant. The mediating effects were -0.924, -.134, and -0.184 respectively. Psychosocial resources and threat sensitivities partly mediated the effect of family social class on social anxiety. The mediation effect was 71.82% of total effect. In all, the current study suggested that family social class had a significant negative effect on social anxiety among Chinese undergraduates. Furthermore, psychosocial resources and rejection sensitivity had multiple mediating effects between family social class and social anxiety. Therefore, increasing psychosocial resources and reducing the rejection sensitivity might help social anxiety prevention and intervention of undergraduates from lower-class families. Related Articles | Metrics

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Perception bias of ambiguous emotional facial expression in shy children 2019, 42(6): 1340-1346.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1023KB) ( )   Shyness is a very old topic, and it is also a topic with Chinese local cultural characteristics. Under the background of Chinese culture, shy individual was considered with behavioral features of social expectation, such as clever, obedient, easy-going, and modesty, and shy experience is also common in Chinese. However, with the rapid development of China's economy and society, the social adaptiveness with shyness become more negative, shyness or its generalization can lead to a series of internalizing and externalizing problems, and shyness has become a potential risk factor of social adaptation. Facial expression is an important carrier of mood message, which is also a mainly information source during the interpersonal interaction. Cognitive Theory Model has believed that the behavior of shy individual is correlation with cognitive biases to the facial expression. Some research have found that high shy children have stronger recognition ability and more sensitive to the anger facial expression, whereas some research have found that high and low shy children have no significant differences in recognition of six basic facial expression. These contradictory conclusions may be related to the usage of experimental materials, which typical facial expressions were used; And recognition accuracy were used as indicator which is insufficiently sensitive. In addition, sad facial expression is thought to trigger empathic responses which are associated with prosocial behavior. In order to further explore the cognitive biases of facial expressions in shy individuals, the current study investigated the differences of perception bias and perceptual sensitivity to ambiguous emotional facial expression between high and low shy children. In this research, we adopted the categorical perception emotion identification task, and ambiguous emotional facial expressions with happy-angry, and happy-sad continuum were used as experiment material, 29 high shy children and 30 low shy children were selected as the subjects from 918 pupils in 5 ~ 6 grade. The results showed that: (1)The category boundary of high shy children on happy-angry ambiguous emotional facial expression was significantly greater than that of low shy children (t(54)=3.28, p=.002, Cohen’s d =.88), which leaned to the happy endpoint, that is, high shy children perceived the shift later from which the expression category of angry to the happy, and tended to perceive the happy-angry ambiguous emotional facial expression as angry.(2)The category boundary of high shy children on happy-sad ambiguous emotional facial expression was significantly greater than that of low shy children (t(49)=2.29,p=.026,Cohen’s d =.64), namely, high shy children tended to perceive the happy- sad ambiguous emotional facial expression as sad. (3)There were no significant differences in the slope of happy-angry and happy-sad ambiguous emotional facial expression between high and low shy children. In conclusions, the high shy children had negative perception bias, including hostile attribution bias to the angry expression and higher sad empathy response to sad expression. In addition, they were insensitive to the shifts in the categories from happy to sad, as well from happy to angry. The results suggested that the intervention training by adjusting the category boundaries of facial expression for shy children can be carried out. Related Articles | Metrics

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Who Would Prefer To Buy Green Products? Understanding Green Consumers 2019, 42(6): 1416-1421.  Abstract ( )   PDF (485KB) ( )   Putting aside for a moment the arguments relating to the definition of green consumption, previous research into green consumerism has been dominated by rural sociologists and geographers. Clearly not all consumers are willing to buy grenn products. Some consumers may be reluctant to purchase green products. In other words, who would prefer to buy green products? When and why? Firstly, we tested the moderation of temporal distance between green consumption values and relative purchase intention. The results showed that the overall model was very significant (R2=0.34, F=27.32, p<0.001). The main effect of time reference and green consumption values were significant. The interaction between time reference and green consumption values was significant (B=-0.51, p=0.02), the explanatory power of the three interactionsΔR2=0.03. Simple effect analysis revealed that, for the subjects with low level of green consumption values, the time reference had positive predictive effect on the purchase intention of green products (B=0.84, SE=0.22, t=3.74, p<0.00), but for the subjects with high level of green consumption values, the time reference had not predictive effect on the purchase intention of green products (B=0.01, SE=0.22, t=0.06, p>0.05).The results shows that the purchase intention of green consumers were more stable and less likely to be influenced by time reference, but non-green consumers tended to buy green products in the future rather than now. Secondly, we tested the moderation of temporal distance between green consumption values and perceived value. The results showed that the overall model was very significant (R2=0.19，F=12.48，p<0.001). The main effect of time reference and green consumption values were significant. The interaction was significant (B =-0.47, p=0.03), the explanatory power of interactionsΔR2=0.02. Simple effect analysis revealed that, for the subjects with low level of green consumption values, the time reference had predictive effect on the perceived value of green products (B =1.04, SE=0.24, t=4.26, p<0.001), but for the subjects with high level of green consumption values, the time reference had not perceived value on the purchase intention of green products (B=0.29, SE=0.24, t=1.21, p>0.05).The results shows that the perceived value of Green consumers were more stable and less likely to be influenced by time reference. A mediated moderation model was represented in the form of a statistical diagram in Figure 1. The total effect of the product of time reference and green consumption values was -0.51, The indirect effect of them was -0.07, This indirect effect was statistically different from zero according to a 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence interval (-0.198 to -0.0034). Finally, the direct effect of them was also statistically significant, B=0.44，p=0.03. So the effect of mediated moderation was partly. Conclusion: Green consumers were more stable and less likely to be influenced by time reference, but non-green consumers tended to buy green products in the future rather than now. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Self- and Other- Power on Junior School Students’ Cooperation in Pubic Goods Dilemma 2019, 42(6): 1428-1433.  Abstract ( )   PDF (443KB) ( )   There has been much research concerning how to promote cooperation and solve the free-rider problem. A common solution to the free-rider problem is to install a leader. But there is a widespread evidence denying the effectiveness of leadership that power can lead people to place greater importance on their own interests and subordinate those of other, and the leader in positions of power can have a substantial negative impact on the common good by acting solely in their own self-interest. However, there is no unanimous conclusion towards the issue whether the effect of power on teenagers’ cooperation is same as adult. Moreover, one’s own and another’s power are ubiquitous in the real world, it is important to explore how one’s own power interacts with another’s power to influence cooperation. In the current study, we mainly examined the effect of self-power and other- power for junior school students’ cooperation. Last but not least, power is a relative construct, it is extremely common for one’s power to change from one situation to the next. Therefore, we further explored stability of power between power and cooperation. Two experiments were conducted in the laboratory with E-Prime 2. Experiment 1 was organized into a 3×3 mixed design, with the first factor referring to the one’s own power (self-power: high vs. low vs. control) as a between-participant factor, the second factor referring to the partner’s power (other-power: high vs. low vs. unknown) as a within-participant factor. Participants consisted of 79 junior school students, and power was manipulated by role playing. The result showed that high power participants were more likely to offer less resource than low power participants. In order to make sure whether the effects from Experiment 1 would remain across different contexts (i.e. when power changes), Experiment 2 was organized into a 2×2 within-participant design, with the first factor referring to the one’s own power (self-power: high vs. low), the second factor referring to the partner’s power (other-power: high vs. low). Participants consisted of 52 junior school students, and power was manipulated within-subjects using the same task, with rounds exercise assignments of interleaved between formal experimental sessions. The result showed that high power participants were more likely to offer more resource than low power participants. Moreover, participants were more likely to offer more resource to low power partner than high power partner, the other-power effect was particularly robust for high power participants. The results are as follows: (1) High power junior school students showed less cooperative behavior than low power students when power is stable, and high power junior school students showed more cooperative behavior than low power students when power is unstable. (2) Participants were more likely to cooperate with low power partner than high power partner. This effect was particularly robust for low power participants. Findings from the two experiments supported the effect of power on cooperation in junior school students and suggested implication for team management. Future research on power using the social dilemmas could explore the effect of social distance, take partner dyad as the unit of analysis which is based on the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM), and test the effect in other social dilemmas. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cognition Bias towards Body-Related Words Among Self-Objectified Female 2019, 42(6): 1462-1469.  Abstract ( )   PDF (712KB) ( )   This research aims to prove that self-objectified female poor cognitive performance on high-level or challenging tasks is due to they distribute many of their cognitive resources to body-related information. Previous researchers found self-objectified female had poor performance on task and limited cognitive resources were available to other activities of self-objectified female, but few researchers manifested the cognitive resources were distributed to body-related information when a woman was being self-objectified. This research wants to find the intrinsic mechanism of self-objectified female poor task performance. The current study aims to manipulate female state self-objectification by two different finds of wearing situations, and then investigate the attention and recognition bias towards positive and negative body-related words among two groups female with different level of state self-objectification by dot probe paradigm and recognition paradigm. 60 female college students were divided into two groups randomly and each group consisting of 30 participants. One group tried on revealing tight-fitting clothing, as high state self-objectification (HSO) group; the other group tried on full loose clothing, as low state self-objectification (LSO) group. A modified visual dot probe paradigm was adopted to measure attention bias. We used 8 attractive body-related words, 8 unattractive body-related words and 32 neutral words as stimuli. There were totally three types of word pairing conditions: attractive-neutral words (A-N), unattractive-neutral words (U-N), and neutral-neutral words (N-N). A recognition paradigm was adopted to measure recognition bias. The word stimuli of recognition paradigm consisted of 32 old words that appeared in foregone dot probe paradigm and 32 new words. The 32words were made up of 8 attractive body-related words, 8 unattractive body-related words and 16 neutral words. At first, participants tried on a suit of clothing and completed Body Surveillance Subscale in a completely private dressing room. Next, participants completed attention task and then completed recognition task. HSO group had greater state self-objectification than LSO group (F (1，59)=18.88，p<0.001，η2P =0.28), showing we manipulated state self-objectification of participants successfully. We worked out the bias index (BI), orienting index (OI) and disengaging index (DI) of dot probe paradigm according to reaction time towards word stimuli. The DI towards attractive body-related words of participants with HSO significantly greater than zero (t (1, 58) = 3.10，p=0.004，d=0.80). This finding demonstrated that participants with HSO had difficulty in attention disengagement from attractive body-related words. And the results of recognition paradigm showed that there was an interaction of reaction time between state self-objectification and word type (F (2, 58) = 4.22，p=0.017，η2P=0.07). The participants with HSO were significantly faster than the participants with LSO when stimuli were attractive body-related words (F(1, 58) = 4.66，p=0.035，η2P=0.07). This finding showed that participants with HSO had stronger memory trace to attractive body-related words. In summary, participants with HSO had the attention and recognition bias towards body-related cues. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that cognitive resources were distributed to body-related information when a woman was being self-objectified. The finding explains what consume recognition resources of self-objectified women and why they have poor performance on high-level or challenging tasks. Related Articles | Metrics

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Relationship between Proactive Personality and Employee Behaviors: The Role of Proactive Socialization Behavior and Political Skill 2019, 42(6): 1448-1454.  Abstract ( )   PDF (677KB) ( )   The rapid change in technology and society requires employees to continually manage change in their organizational environment. Employees with proactive personality are more willing to seek out opportunities, take initiatives, and promote meaningful change. Therefore, proactive personality has been found to play an important role in driving career success of individuals and the competitive advantage of their organizations. However, some studies suggested that the effect of proactive personality might be exaggerated or misinterpreted. Whether proactive personality will lead to positive work outcomes may depend on other factors. The objective of this study was to explore the mechanism how proactive personality take effect on work related behaviors. This study applied a longitudinal moderated mediation model to investigate the mediation role of proactive socialization behavior (PSB) in the relationship between proactive personality and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and the relationship between proactive personality and task performance, and examined whether the mediation effect of PSB would be moderated by individuals’ political skills. A total of 243 employees participated in this study. A longitudinal design was employed in data collection procedure with the interval of two months. Data of demographic information, proactive personality, and political skill were collected at Time 1; data of PSB, OCB and task performance were collected at Time 2. All data were collected by self-rated questionnaires, except that OCB and task performance were assessed by the direct leaders of the participants. The results showed that: (1) proactive personality was positively associated with PSB; (2) PSB was positively associated with OCB and task performance; (3) PSB mediated the influence of proactive personality on OCB and task performance; (4a) political skill moderated the relationship between proactive personality and PSB that the relationship was stronger when participants had higher political skills; (4b) the mediation effect of PSB on the relationship between proactive personality and OCB and the relationship between proactive personality and task performance was moderated by political skill that the mediation effect was stronger when participants showed higher political skills. The results revealed the mediation role of PSB in the influence of proactive personality on OCB and task performance, which provided a possible explanation how proactive personality affected work related behaviors. The moderation effect of political skills suggested that proactive personality is more likely to lead to positive work outcomes when employees had higher political skills. The findings of this study enriched the literature of proactive personality and provided support for future exploration of conditions under which proactive personality would be beneficial to individuals and organizations. Practical implication included but not limited to the following two items. On one hand, given the positive effect of proactive personality on work performance, organizations may consider including proactive personality assessment in personnel selection process. On the other hand, considering the conditional effect, political skill enhancement training should be provided to all the staff in organization to accelerate their organizational socialization and achieve mutual development of both employee and organization. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Neuroticism on Forgiveness of College Students: The Role of Anxiety Attachment andAggressive Humor Style 2019, 42(6): 1403-1409.  Abstract ( )   PDF (618KB) ( )   Researchers have suggested that forgiveness can be beneficial for social stability, family harmony, and happiness in marriage, and that forgiveness is also an important factor in maintaining interpersonal relations and promoting mental health. However,Studies have shown that forgiveness is significantly related to the flexibility of cognition, positive emotion, rumination, retaliation and enmity, and significantly affects the physical and mental health of the individual.College students as subjects group's research shows that forgiveness can reduce the attack behavior in college students' interpersonal conflict, promote its produce more pro-social behavior, effectively reduce the college students causing negative emotions such as anxiety, depression, and improve the quality of individual self-esteem, happiness and friendship.It can be seen that forgiveness has a positive effect on that student 'normal life and interpersonal interactions. Therefore, it is necessary for researchers to explore the internal mechanism of college students' forgiveness, so as to provide theoretical support for improving college students' forgiveness and promoting their physical and mental health. A total sample of 550 college students from some universities was selected,with 184 males and 306 females, the average age was 21.76-year-old.. The questionnaires included the Big Five Inventory(NEO.PI-R), Forgiveness Scale(FS), Adult Attachment Scale(AAS) and Humor Style Questionnaire(HSQ). Data was collected and analyzed with Spss 25.0, Amos21.0 and Mplus7.4, and the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the role of anxiety attachment and aggressive humor style between neuroticism and college students' forgiveness,as well as test the common method variance. Results showed that the study was in-existent common method variance. The results show that: (1) The relationships between each pair of neuroticism, anxiety attachment, aggressive humor style and negative reaction,negative reaction disappearance, self-attention are correlated significantly,the correlation?coefficient ranges -0.412 from 0.666 (p<0.01); (2) The structural equation model(SEM) reveals that the data fits the theoretical model well(χ2/df=3.63,CFI=0.95,TLI=0.91,SRMR=0.04,RMSEA=0.07).(3) neuroticism has?a?significant direct?effect on forgiveness (β=-0.24, p<0.01); neuroticism has?a?significant direct?effect on anxiety attachment (β=0.47, p<0.01);anxiety attachment has?a?significant direct?effect on forgiveness(β=-0.17,p<0.01);aggressive humor style has?a?significant direct?effect on forgiveness(β=-0.34, p<0.01); Interaction has a?significant direct?effect on forgiveness (β=-0.11, p<0.01).(4) neuroticism has a significant indirect?effect on forgiveness?through?anxiety attachment , and?the?confidence interval of 95% is?[-0.01,-0.003]; (5) aggressive humor style moderates the relation between neuroticism and forgiveness of college students, that is, there is a significant more negaitive relation between neuroticism and forgiveness under the high aggressive humor style level than under the low aggressive humor style level. It is concluded that in the structural equation model of neuroticism on forgiveness of college students,anxiety attachment plays a partial mediating role and aggressive humor style moderates the direct effect.These findings suggest some measures of prevention and treatment for college students’ Forgiveness should be taken. in order to help them improve forgiveness behavior, further enhancing college students' ability to deal with interpersonal conflict. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cognitive dysfunction and underlying neural basis in Gambling Disorder 2019, 42(6): 1396-1402.  Abstract ( )   PDF (695KB) ( )   The essential feature of gambling disorder is persistent and recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior that has recently gained much attention because of its increasing prevalence and devastating personal, familial, and social consequences. Based on similarities between gambling and substance-use disorders in neurocognitive and other domains, gambling disorder has recently been classified into “substance-related and addictive disorders” in the DSM-5, as “Non-Substance-Related Disorders”. For a better understanding of the causes of gambling disorder and its underlying neural mechanisms, we provide an integrative review of cognitive dysfunction of gambling disorders studies implicated in cognitive distortions, reward and punishment sensitivity, attention bias, and decision making. The future research needs to study more on the mechanism and development process of gambling disorders from the perspective of cognitive neuroscience, pay attention to the brain structural alterations and functional brain networks in gambling disorders, and integrate them into clinical neurobiological mechanisms to find more effective interventions and clinical treatments. we summarize the research on the cognitive dysfunction and neural mechanisms involved in gambling disorder. (1) it investigated brain regions underpinning gambling-related cognitive distortions. ‘Near-miss’ events, where unsuccessful outcomes are proximal to a win, recruit overlapping neural circuitry with actual monetary wins. Illusion of control over a gamble is also known to increase confidence in one’s chances of winning, showed an increased neural activity within a cortico-striatal network. ‘Loss-chasing’, or continued gambling in an attempt to recover losses, is implicated a complex of executive-control and impulsivity-related systems involved in loss-processing. (2) Differences in sensitivity to punishments and rewards can influence an individual's behavior and may be pertinent to the development of gambling disorder. The deficit in rewards and losses processing typically observed a reduction of ventral striatal activation in individuals with gambling disorder. We intend to add evidence on relevant brain structures in this functional brain system. Functional neuroimaging studies on gambling disorder found changes in the mesolimbic reward system (i.e., ventral striatum) and in the prefrontal cortex during reward processing and executive functions. In accordance with the observations, there are evidences that higher grey matter volumes in ventral striatum and anterior prefrontal cortex in gambling disorder as compared with controls. (3) Gambling-related cues can enhance the activities in the cognitive-controlled brain circuits (prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, etc.) as well as emotional processing brain circuits (amygdala, insula, nucleus accumbens, etc.), which may be a potential neural basis for attentional bias toward gambling disorders, resulting in increased attention to the gambling-related stimuli. In addition, the findings of relatively diminished hippocampal and amygdalar volumes in gambling disorder individuals. (4) These individuals’ poor decision making may be a product of an imbalance between the emotion and motivation-related brain regions (amygdala, insula, etc.) and the prefrontal cortex. Finally, we propose that future studies should (1) More concerned about the relationship between functional and structural alterations to add evidence on relevant brain structures in this functional brain system. (2) analyze the cognition, pathological state and working mechanism of the gambling disorders in a dynamic functional connectivity networks, explore the relationship between gambling disorders and brain function connectivity, and reveal the neural mechanism of gambling disorders. (3) Integrate neuroimaging measures into pathophysiological offers the opportunity to understand the mechanisms underlying effective treatments, and translating neurobiological advances into more effective prevention and treatment strategies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Are older adults more risk-averse? Task-specific effect of impulsiveness on age-related decision changes 2019, 42(6): 1382-1388.  Abstract ( )   PDF (741KB) ( )   Decision making under risk changes with age. This age-related difference is often attributed to the alteration in risk tolerance. A recent age-related decision making meta-analysis suggested that in decisions from experience, age-related differences in risk taking were a function of decreased learning performance, whereas in decisions from description, younger adults and older adults showed similar risk-taking behavior. However, little is known about whether age-related differences in decision making reflect a direct effect of aging or, alternatively, caused by age-related changes in risk attitudes, like impulsiveness. Our main goal was to investigate older adults’ risk propensity in different decision making tasks, namely, description-based and experience-based tasks. Moreover, this study was to determine whether self-report of impulsiveness could predict behavior on different decision tasks, and whether this prediction could be mediated by age. We tested two groups of participants: 27 older adults (age 65.56±5.38; 29.63% male) and 27 younger adults (age 21.04±1.60; 40.74% male). All participants completed a battery of psychometric tests including Barratt Impulsiveness Scale-11th version (BIS-11), and two sets of decision making tasks: a description-based task ? Cambridge Gambling Task (CGT) and an experience-based task ? Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART). During the CGT, participants were told that a token was hidden under one of the red or blue cards, with color ratios changing from 5:1, 4:2, to 3:3. To indicate the location of the token, participants had to bet on one color of the cards, and the bets associated with a certain amount ratio (10 vs. 90, 30 vs. 70, or 50 vs. 50) for each choice. During the BART, participants were told that they would inflate a balloon on each of a number of trials by pressing “pump” button. Each pump could earn participants 0.1 CNY; however, if the balloon exploded, they would lose the money accumulated on that trial. Older adults reported lower levels of impulsive behavior in motor impulsiveness, attentional impulsiveness, and non-planning impulsiveness as compared with younger adults. However, older adults were more likely to choose options that had a low probability of winning on the CGT, showing as a risk-seeking propensity. The decision of older adults were also of significantly differences than those of younger adults on the BART; however, for this task, older adults made more risk averse decisions than the younger adults. Besides the heterogeneous results of these two tasks, the findings had showed that older adults made significantly lower quality decisions than younger adults. Moreover, the moderation analysis showed that the effects of age upon decision making reflect an indirect influence of age-related impulsiveness decline. In conclusion, different decision making tasks do not entirely succeed in capture the same age-related risk-taking propensity. Moreover, our study highlights that the relationship between aging and decision making is mediated, in part, by self-assessment of impulsiveness. Our results show that in order to truly understand the age-related alterations upon decision making, future research may consider take into account the convergent and predictive validity of self-report and behavioral measures of risk taking. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Practice Effect of Time-based Prospective Memory and Its personality Difference 2019, 42(6): 1441-1447.  Abstract ( )   PDF (355KB) ( )   Prospective memory represents the ability of remembering to carry out an intended action in the future. In a typical prospective memory experiment, participants are required to engage in two tasks: the ongoing task and prospective task. According to the nature of the prospective memory cues, there are two types of prospective memory: time-based prospective memory (TBPM) and event-based prospective memory (EBPM). TBPM requires individuals to do something at a specific time point or time period. For example, go to the teaching building for the professional course at two o’clock on Tuesday afternoon. Compared with retrospective memory, prospective memory has a greater impact on the quality of life, because it is directly related to our life plans. Lots of researches focused on how to improve the performance of prospective memory. Practice is usually simple and effective in improving cognitive performance. Some studies found that the performance of prospective memory could also be improved by practice. We define this phenomenon as the practice effect of prospective memory. Most studies found that the practice effect of EBPM was prevalent in young and elderly groups. However, it is not clear whether the TBPM has the practice effect. If the practice effect exists, why does it happen? Dynamic attending theory (DAT) argues that practice improves the effectiveness of time monitoring, resulting in the improvement of TBPM performance. Whether the DAT could effectively explain the practice effect of TBPM? Type A and B personality have different characteristics of time monitoring and management. Thus, the practice effect of TBPM may also have personality differences. Experiment 1 adopted 2（A-B personality: type A、type B）×2（Groups: control group、experimental group）design. Ongoing task adopted 1-back task, which required participants to compare two adjacent capitals. Prospective memory task was pressing the “1” key every 1 minute. A total of 112 college students (27 type A/control group, 28 type A/experimental group, 28 type B/ control group, 29 type B/ experimental group) participated the experiment after screening of A type of behavior type questionnaire. The results showed that the prospective memory scores of all the experimental groups were higher than those of the control groups. Compared with control groups, the experimental groups had more times of time monitoring in the whole process period and the later stage and smaller of time difference. Experiment 2 adopted the same experiment design and procedure as Experiment 1. The only difference between the two experiments was that the ongoing task of Experiment 2 was 2-back task, which required participants to compare the present letter with the second one in front of it. The results of Experiment 2 were roughly the same as Experiment 1. The results of the two experiments confirmed the existence of the practice effect of TBPM. But we did not find the personality differences in the practice effect of TBPM. The conclusions of the present study are as follows: (1) the practice effect of TBPM does exist. (2) There is no difference between type A and type B in the practice effect of TBPM. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Driving Experience and Hazard Types on Hazard Detection 2019, 42(6): 1455-1461.  Abstract ( )   PDF (580KB) ( )   Hazard detection refers to the ability of detecting potential hazards on the road. Although many studies have found that experienced drivers outperformed novice drivers on hazard detection in computer-based hazard perception test, some studies have not found such differences. Furthermore, some researchers have attempted to find the relationship between drivers’ response time to the hazards with their sensitivity and response criteria, but with mixed results. Some studies found that drivers’ slower response time to the hazards was due to their low sensitivity while others found that it was strict response criteria that resulted in slower response. Given hazard type was a key factor in hazard perception; it might be an underlying factor that accounts for the inconsistency in previous studies. Additionally, the effects of hazard types on drivers’ sensitivity or/and response criteria have not been largely explored. Thus, the present study aimed to examine the effects of driving experience and hazard types on response time, sensitivity and response criteria and to reveal their relationships under different hazard types. A 2×2 mixed experiment design was employed with driving experience as the between- group factor and hazard types as the within-group factor. Thirty-five novice drivers and 35 experienced drivers were asked to complete a hazard perception task where they were instructed to click the left mouse button quickly when they detect a hazard. Then, participants were asked to finish a signal detection task where they were asked to report orally whether the video clips contained a hazard or not before it was blacked out at a certain point. Hazards in the video clips were classified into overt hazards and covert hazards according to the visibility during their materialization. Sixty video clips were used in the present study and 40 video clips contained either a covert hazard or an overt hazard. The results revealed that experience-related advantage was found on hazard detection. Drivers who had more driving experience responded faster to the hazards, and were more likely to distinguish the hazards and identify what they saw as true hazards. Hazard types did play an important role in hazard detection. Drivers detected overt hazards faster than covert hazards. Furthermore, hazard types affected the relationship between drivers’ sensitivities, response criteria and their response time. Negative correlation was found between drivers’ sensitivity on overt hazard and their response time. Such relationship was not found on covert hazards. Drivers’ response criteria correlated positively and significantly with their response time, regardless of hazard types. Regression analysis showed that drivers’ slower response time to the hazards was due to their strict response criteria rather than their low sensitivities. The present study found hazard type partially determined drivers’ detection of the hazards in the video clips. The findings provided a better understanding for the phenomenon of why novice drivers detected some particular hazards slower than experienced drivers and provided more evidence for the application of signal detection theory in explaining experience-related differences in hazard detection. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Prediction of Hostile Attribution Bias on Reactive Aggression and the Mediating Role of Revenge Motivation Fang-Ying QUAN 2019, 42(6): 1434-1440.  Abstract ( )   PDF (788KB) ( )   According to the social information processing (SIP) model, when interpreting social information, some people may be inclined to interpret the behaviors of others in ambiguous situations as hostile intent, this is known as hostile attribution bias. Hostile attribution bias is an important cognitive mechanism that underlies the development of aggression. Reactive aggression and proactive aggression are two major subtypes of aggression. Reactive aggression refers to defensive, retaliatory aggressive response, which in response to real or perceived provocative stimulus. Proactive aggression involves a purposeful planned attack with an external or internal reward as a goal. Both aggressions may lead to serious social problems, and even criminal offenses. However, there is still lack of investigation on the longitudinal relationship between hostile attribution bias with reactive and proactive aggression, and the dynamic mechanism of the effect of hostile attribution bias on reactive aggression is not clear. There may be some emotional dynamic factors involved the relationship between hostile attribution bias and reactive aggression. In summary, the present study aimed to address these two issues through two studies. In study 1, a total of 529 undergraduate students (212 males and 317 females; mean age =20.74 years, SD=0.97) were investigated twice, with an interval of six months between each test. Using longitudinal study to explore the relationship between hostile attribution bias (measured by Word Sentence Association Paradigm for Hostility scale, WSAP- Hostility) and proactive aggression, reactive aggression (measured by Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire, RPQ). All measures showed good reliabilities. The results suggested that, when controlling for the gender and age, hostile attribution bias at wave 1 can predict reactive aggression at wave 2, while can’t predict proactive aggression across time. To test the mediation role of revenge motivation (measured by Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Inventory, TRIM), which involves to feelings of righteous indignation correspond to a motivation to seek revenge or see harm come to the offender. 521 participants (181 males and 340 females; mean age =20.33 years, SD=1.07) were investigated using a set of three questionnaires (including WSAP- Hostility, RPQ, TRIM) in Study 2. The findings support the view that revenge motivation is a mediate mechanism underlying the relationship between hostile attribution bias and reactive aggression. In ambiguous provoked situations (e.g., interpersonal conflict, physical conflict), those with a high hostile attribution bias are more likely to induce their internal motivation to retaliate against the offender, which then becomes the driving dynamic mechanism for the individual to engage reactive aggression. However, those individuals who with low hostile attribution bias can restrain the desire to revenge, thus reducing the generation of reactive aggression. This study expands our understanding regarding the relationship between hostile attribution bias and proactive aggression, reactive aggression and suggests that hostile attribution bias mainly plays an important role in the formation of reactive aggression, but not that in proactive aggression. Meanwhile, an effect of certain aggressive motivational mechanism (i.e., revenge motivation) in the predict role of hostile attribution bias on reactive aggression was found. The exploration of the underlying motivation mechanism through revenge motivation that hostile attribution bias influences reactive aggression can deepen the understanding of the formation and development of reactive aggression. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Advisor’s Facial Width-to-Height Ratio on Judge’s Advice-taking 2019, 42(6): 1410-1415.  Abstract ( )   PDF (433KB) ( )   The existing literatures have provided empirical research evidence which demonstrated that facial width-to-height ratio (fWHR) was associated with social judgments, such as aggression, racial animus, dehumanization, etc. However, there has been few researches focused on whether fWHR could influence the consequence and process of other’s decision making. Advice-taking mainly explores how judges change the initial opinion to form the final decision after receiving another person’s advice, which involves judges and advisors. This paper proposed a negative effect of advisor’s fWHR on advice taking because the detriment perceptions of high fWHR targets led to negative impacts on their credibility as an advisor. We also examined the moderating role of the gender of the advisor and the degree of emotional difficulty. Three lab experiments were conducted to test our hypotheses. The first experiment examined the effect of advisor’s fWHR on advice taking. Participants were randomly assigned to four groups and were presented with an advisor’s picture of different gender and degrees of fWHR (male high fWHR targets, female high fWHR targets, male low fWHR targets, and female high fWHR targets). They were first instructed to make the initial decisions by themselves, and then watch the advisor’s picture and read their advice. After that, they were asked to report their intentions to change the initial decisions depend on the advice. Experiment 2 was conducted to test the mediating role of credibility of advisor and enhance the robustness of main effect with different scenarios. In experiment 3, we examined the moderation role of the degree of emotional difficulty by using a 2 (high fWHR vs. Low fWHR ) * 2 (low emotional difficult vs. high emotional difficulty) between-subjects design. The degree of emotional difficulty was manipulated by inviting 207 participants to read and imagine a scenario that they are in an investment dilemma which may cause negative emotions at different levels. We also controlled the effects of face attraction, perceived dominance and perceived benevolence in three lab studies.The results of experiment 1 identified the negative effect of advisor’s fWHR on advice taking when advisor was male, but failed to find any significant difference when advisor was female. Experiment 2 indicated that credibility of advisor mediated the relationship between advisor’s fWHR and advice taking. Moreover, the results of experiment 3 revealed a significant moderating role of emotional difficulty. In the low degree of emotional difficulty, the main effect of advisor’s fWHR on advice taking as well as the mediating effect of credibility of advisor were identified, but they were not supported in the high degree of emotional difficulty. This paper contributes to the literature in several different areas. Firstly, We find that facial factors have an important influence on advice taking which can help us understand the process of advice taking. By examining how advisor’s fWHR influences the process of advice taking, the current research enriches evidences that peripheral cues play an important role in the decision-making process. Secondly, we shed light on the literature of fWHR by exploring its decisional consequences. We also find it is important to explore the influence of emotional difficulty on the perception of facial width-to-height ratio. Finally, this research contributes to the advice taking literature by facilitating interaction between judge and advisor. Related Articles | Metrics

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Adolescents’ Loneliness and Depression Symptom: the Mediating Role of the Response styles 2019, 42(6): 1470-1477.  Abstract ( )   PDF (742KB) ( )   Adolescence is an important period of cognition and personality development, in this period, academic burden, family conflict and interpersonal relationship change more rapidly, which lead to many psychological problems, Such as loneliness and depression, which are common problems in adolescence. Remarkably, loneliness and depression often occur at the same time. Researchers found that loneliness stem from lacking of satisfactory interpersonal relationships, can lead to adolescents’ depression, especially when peer relationship become more important in this period. Moreover, the response styles are the coping styles to deal with negative emotions or cognitive strategies, which include rumination, distraction and problem-solving. Rumination as a negative emotion regulation strategy is proved closely related to adolescents’ depression, besides, distraction and problem-solving are positive emotion regulation strategies. It is possible that adolescents’ loneliness lead to depression by response styles. Therefore, based on the response styles theory of depression, the current study aims at investigating the correlations between the three kinds of response styles and depression, further explore the mediating role of the response styles in adolescents’ loneliness and depression symptom. In this study, 795 adolescents from two junior high schools in Beijing (the first grade and second grade were selected) and a high school in Lanzhou(the first grade and second grade were selected), completed “Loneliness Scale”, “children’s response styles questionnaires”, “Children’s Depression Inventory”. The students aged 11-19. As to data analysis, first, we conducted descriptive statistics and correlation analysis by using SPSS 20.0. Next, we used MPLUS 7.0 to test the mediation effects of rumination, distraction, problem-solving and the overall response styles on adolescents’ loneliness and depressive symptoms by Bootstrap method. The results indicated that: (1) Adolescents’ loneliness was positively correlated with depression(r=0.61, p<0.01). Depression was positively correlated with rumination (r=0.51, p<0.01), negatively correlated with distraction(r=-0.19, p<0.01) and problem-solving(r=-0.27, p<0.01). (2) There was no significant correlation between rumination and distraction, problem-solving positively correlated with rumination(r=0.14, p<0.01) and distraction(r=0.46, p<0.01). (3) Rumination and problem-solving mediated the effect of loneliness on adolescent depression, the mediator effect respectively was 0.157 and 0.070, the mediator effect size respectively was 23.57% and 10.51%; Moreover, distraction couldn’t mediate the effect. (3) The overall response style (CRSQ ratio scores) also mediated the effect of loneliness on adolescent depressive symptoms, the mediator effect was 0.216, the mediator effect size was 32.38%. In Summary, the current study reveals that, rumination aggravates adolescents’ depressive symptoms, but it does not restrain the use of distraction and problem-solving, adolescents use different response styles at the same time. The study also suggests that rumination is a negative response style, while problem-solving and distraction are positive ones to depression. When adolescents face depression, those using more rumination have more depressive emotions than those using more distraction and problem solving. Furthermore, lonely adolescents are more depressed by having fewer problem-solving and more rumination, they stick to the perception that they lack of social networks and dissatisfied relationship. Therefore, to change the depression of the lonely adolescents, we may transform their rumination, problem solving, and negative response styles. Related Articles | Metrics

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Money Punishment Promotes the Performance of Behavioral in Stroop Tasks 2019, 42(6): 1389-1395.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1082KB) ( )   Inhibition control is considered to be one of the core components of executive function, specifically, it refers to the ability of an individual to suppress inappropriate behavior or irrelevant task information. Researchers generally classify inhibition control into two types, interference inhibition/interference control and response inhibition/behavioral inhibition. Impaired Inhibition control is generally considered to be the main features of some clinical diseases, such as Addiction, Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), etc., therefore, it is widely valued by researchers. In recent years, more and more research has begun to focus on the relationship between motivation and inhibition control. The study found that monetary rewards can promote individual behavioral inhibition and enhance neural structural connections, and this effect changes as the reward amount increases. Few studies have examined the effects of punishment motivation on inhibition control. The only studies have not explored the impact of punishment magnitude on inhibition control and their relationship to individual reward and punishment sensitivity. Based on this, this study combines the Stroop task with the modified version of monetary incentive delay task (MIDT), using 4 (punishment magnitude: 0 yuan, 20 yuan, 100 yuan, 500 yuan) × 3 (task type: neutral , congruent, incongruent) experimental design to further supplement this issue. The results were as follows: (1) Whether they are neutral trials, congruent trials or incongruent trials, the monetary punishment not only reduces the behavioral reaction time of the participants, but also improves the accuracy rate; (2) The interference effect between the non-punishment condition (0 yuan) and the punishment condition (20 yuan, 100 yuan, 500 yuan) is not significant, and the interference effect between other different magnitude punishment conditions are also not significant. (3) The impact of monetary punishment on reaction time of incongruent trial is significantly negatively correlated with individual punishment sensitivity, but not with reward sensitivity. The results show that money punishment can promote an individual's general behavior, but does not increase the interference inhibition ability of the participants. At the same time, the impact of money punishment on cognitive behavior is closely related to its punishment sensitivity. On the one hand, the results of the study provide support for Gray's theory of reinforcement sensitivity, on the other hand, they provide a reference for the application of psychology and education Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Nicotine Dependence and Perceived Behavioral Control towards Quitting Smoking among Chinese Male Smokers: The Moderating Roles of Social Support and Complaint from Others 2019, 42(6): 1493-1498.  Abstract ( )   PDF (551KB) ( )   The previous studies show that the perceived behavioral control (PBC) towards quitting smoking would be weakened by the increased nicotine dependence among daily smokers. However, there is little research examining the effects of social environmental factors on PBC towards quitting among the Chinese male daily smokers. Guided by the theories of Buffering Effect Model, the negative effect of nicotine dependence on PBC towards quitting may be buffered by the positive social support for quitting smoking from others. Additionally, both of the social support for quitting smoking and complaint of smoking from others are frequently perceived by smokers. However, little is known about the influence of complaint of smoking from others on the PBC towards quitting smoking. The present study aims to examine the interactive moderating effect of the perceived social support for quitting smoking and complaint of smoking from others on the relationship between nicotine dependence and PBC towards quitting among smokers. A sample of 326 Chinese male current daily smokers were recruited to complete several self-report questionnaires, including Fagerstr?m Test for Nicotine Dependence, Scale of PBC towards Smoking Cessation, and the sub-scales of perceived social support for quitting smoking and complaint of smoking from others from the Partner Interaction Questionnaire. The moderation analysis were conducted by using PROCESS macro for SPSS. The results show that: (1) The PBC towards quitting smoking is significantly and negatively predicted by nicotine dependence. (2) The interactive moderating effect of perceived social support for quitting smoking and complaints of smoking from others on the relationship between nicotine dependence and PBC towards quitting smoking is significant. As for the smokers who perceive less complaint of smoking and perceive less social support for quitting from others, as well as for the smokers who perceive more complaint of smoking and perceive more social support for quitting from others, the relationship between nicotine dependence and PBC towards quitting smoking is significant. As for the smokers who perceive less complaint of smoking and perceived more social support for quitting from others, as well as for the smokers who perceive more complaint of smoking and perceive less social support for quitting from others, the relationship between nicotine dependence and PBC towards quitting is not significant. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis of Buffering Effect Model and suggest that the social support for quitting smoking could function as a buffer which buffering the negative influence of nicotine dependence on PBC towards quitting smoking. Moreover, the current findings furtherly indicate that the perceptions of social support for quitting and complaint of smoking from others are co-existed and antagonistic for Chinese male daily smokers. The buffering function of social support for quitting is moderated by the complaint of smoking from others. The positive function of social support for quitting is shown when the smokers perceive lower degree of complaints of smoking from others. Further studies should distinguish the different social members’ support and complaint and examine the different effects of them on PBC towards quitting smoking among the Chinese male daily smokers. Related Articles | Metrics

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Latent Classes of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Their Resilience Difference of Parents Who Lost Their Only Child 2019, 42(6): 1499-1506.  Abstract ( )   PDF (985KB) ( )   Abstract There has been a remarkable number of families who have lost their only child known as Shidu family, partially because of the one-child policy in China. The Shidu family means that the couple have only one child who has died because of disasters, accidents, homicide or suicide, and the mother is over 49 years that has passed her reproductive age so that the couple have no ability to regenerate another child. At present, there are more than one million Shidu families in China, and about 76,000 Shidu families occur each year according to official statistics. As a unique and vulnerable group, they not only were trapped in financial and pension predicament, but also suffered serious physical and mental health problems, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, grief symptoms and so forth. Shidu parents is a unique vulnerable group in Chinese society deserving attention. This study aims to (a) determine whether there are distinct PTSD symptom subgroups or classes in Shidu parents in China, (b) examine whether social-demographic and loss-related variables are associated with classes membership, and (c) compare the resilience difference among each latent classes. Participants were 385 parents who lost their only child were recruited from ten cities of five provinces in China during November 2016 to July 2017. The mean age of participants was 61.46 (SD=7.98), with females being 48% of the sample. Participants were asked to complete the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5) and a short Chinese version of Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10). Latent class analyses was used to identify different symptom classes of PTSD. We explored 1-5 latent class model, the values of the Log-likelihood, AIC，BIC and aBIC decreased with the number of classes. The three classes solution had the highest entropy and the p-value of LMR was significant. Based on fit-indices and interpretability of the outcomes, the three-classes solution was selected as the optimal solution, were named high-symptom class (30%), intermediate-symptom class (38%) and low-symptom class (32%), respectively. Further analysis indicated that classes differed in terms of age and time since loss (χ2=8.19-12.16, p<0.01); no significant differences were found among the classes in terms of gender, degree of education or religious belief (p>0.05). When age, time since loss were included in multinomial regression analyses predicting class membership, it was found that compared to those in the low-symptom class: (1) individuals in the high-symptom class were predicted by under 60 years old (OR=2.72) and the time since loss less than 10 years (OR=0.46). (2) individuals in the intermediate-symptom class were predicted by under 60 years old (OR=2.52). One-way ANOVA showed that the resilience score of high-symptom class was significantly lower than the other two classes (F=33.63, p<0.001), while the resilience score between the intermediate-symptom class and low-symptom class was not significant. There were three latent classes of PTSD symptoms among parents who lost their only child. PTSD symptoms were more serious in parents under 60 years old and lost child in the preceding 10 years, and resilience was a protective factor for parents’ PTSD symptoms after loss the only child. Attention and effective intervention should be given to those who were less than 60 years, and child died less than 10 years, helping them improve their resilience level to reduce the risk of PTSD or even other negative events. Related Articles | Metrics

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Suppression-Induced Forgetting: The Effects of Suppression Parameters, Valence and Arousal of Experimental Materials, Anticipatory Effect and Individual Differences Hong-Chao WANG ZHANG Qi 2019, 42(6): 1507-1513.  Abstract ( )   PDF (349KB) ( )   Not all memories make people comfortable. People can forget unwelcome memories by retrieval suppression, that called suppression-induced forgetting. The Think/No-think paradigm employed to investigate suppression-induced forgetting includes Think, No-think, and Baseline conditions, respectively. If the recall accuracy of No-think cue-target word pairs is reduced significantly compared to Baseline cue-target word pairs, means suppression-induced forgetting is induced. As for the mechanism of suppression-induced forgetting, interference theory indicates that, suppression-induced forgetting is due to new association created with cue items interferes with the retrieval of old association. In contrast, inhibition theory claims that, suppression-induced forgetting is the result of impaired retention and accessibility of target memory by participants inhibit unwanted memories from entering consciousness. Based on inhibition, executive deficit hypothesis believes that, the differences of suppression-induced forgetting among individuals deserve from variant executive control ability. At present, the stability of suppression-induced forgetting is still controversial. For the purpose, the current paper summarizes prior papers and finds that, suppression-induced forgetting effect is mainly affected by the suppression parameters, valence and arousal level of experimental materials, anticipatory effect and individual differences and so on. Firstly, the suppression parameters consists of suppression duration and suppression times. Specifically, in terms of suppression duration, when the duration of Think/No-think phase is proper, if duration of a NT trial is set within 5s, suppression-induced forgetting may be detected, and it maybe increasingly enhance follow suppression duration increases. As far as suppression times is concerned, the number of suppression may need to set as at least 8 or more, only in that case, suppression-induced forgetting will tend to be stable. Secondly, the suppression-induced forgetting effect of negative emotional memories is stronger than neutral emotional memories. The possible reason is due to negative emotional memories are more susceptible to stronger inhibitory control compared to neutral memories. For the positive emotional memories, it can also induce suppression-induced forgetting. However, it is harder to forget those memories associated with positive emotion. Interestingly, positive emotional memories with high arousal are easily suppressed, while negative emotional memories are suppressed difficultly regardless of arousal. In addition, suppression-induced forgetting effect can be increased by means of participants make the preparation for retrieval suppression of target memory when anticipatory cue appears. Finally, suppression-induced forgetting is increasingly improved from children (8 years old) to adults, even not reduced markedly in old age. However, for the impaired memory suppression ability, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder patients forget negative emotional memories hard. Notably, stronger the executive control ability is, stronger the suppression-induced forgetting is. Therefore, executive control ability deficit maybe the reason why suppression-induced forgetting effect disappear for depression and post-traumatic stress disorder patients, too. In future, researches should investigate the effect of connective strength within memory control network on suppression-induced forgetting, especially for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression patients. Beyond that, researches should further examine the effects of emotional arousal and all kinds of negative emotions on suppression-induced forgetting, to explore whether insomnia and sleep deprivation can improve suppression-induced forgetting effect, and illustrate the relationship between inhibitory control and REM sleep duration and so on. Related Articles | Metrics

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Evaluation of the Quality of Insight in Counseling：From the Perspectives of Clients and Counselors 2019, 42(6): 1514-1519.  Abstract ( )   PDF (463KB) ( )   Insight is regarded as one of the most important factors in counseling. There were several studies on the relationship between insight and outcome. However, researchers focused more on how the quantity of insight impacted on the outcome, and neglected the quality of insight. Actually, the quality of insight is more important than the quantity in successful counseling. Few published papers has addressed the quality of insight. This study attempts to explore how to evaluate the quality of insight from the perspectives of both clients and counselors. Insight is defined as a new understanding of oneself and others (mainly oneself) in this study. Thirteen clients and fifteen counselors consent to participate in the study. The participants are interviewed face-to-face regarding to their experience of insight in counseling. When the clients have received three or more sessions, they are asked to review a recent session. After that, they are asked to describe the insight in this session and rate the quality of insight. The counselors are asked to list two or three insights obtained by the clients in recent counseling sessions. Then they are asked to rate the quality of insight separately. The reasons why they rate are interviewed. All the interviews are recorded and transcribed. The interview materials of clients are analyzed by a research team (4 counseling-major postgraduates) using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR), while the data of counselors are analyzed by another research team (3 counseling-major postgraduates). For clients, there are two themes emerging from the interview data. The first theme centers on the impact of insight ( T ). Two subcategories are included in this theme. One is helpfulness ( T ), and the other is emotional arousal ( V ). The second theme centers on the properties of insight ( T ). There are four subcategories belonged to this theme, which includes depth ( V ), discrepancy ( V ), centrality ( V ), and controllability ( V ) separately. For counselors, five themes are extracted from the interview data. The first theme (including subcategories) is highly similar to the results of the clients, which centers on the impact of insight. The second theme is also very similar to the results of the clients, which centers on the properties of insight. There are five subcategories under the second theme. They are depth ( V ), discrepancy ( V ), centrality ( V ), the connection of experience ( V ), and accuracy ( V ). Among the subcategories, depth, discrepancy and centrality are similar with clients’ views. The third theme centers on the type of insight ( V ). There are two different types of insights. Overall, emotional insight is better than intellectual insight for counselors. The fourth theme centers on the way of gaining insight. Insights obtained by clients themselves are better than that offered by counselors. The fifth theme centers on the extent of acceptance ( V ). As a whole, there are many similarities between counselor’ and clients’ views about quality of insight. Both of them emphasize the impact of insight including helpfulness and emotional arousal. In addition, both of them pay attention to the properties including depth, discrepancy, and centrality. The impact of insight and some important properties of insight (such as depth, discrepancy, centrality ) are important to the quality of insight, which may be used tentatively to assess the quality of insight. These results have important implications for clinical practice and research. Related Articles | Metrics

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The comparison of Enactive cognition and Embodied functionalism——How to use the representations Hao-sheng YE 2019, 42(6): 1520-1525.  Abstract ( )   PDF (341KB) ( )   This article focuses on the comparison between the radical and moderate views of embodied cognition. In the field of Embodied Cognition, Enactive cognition opposes representation and computationalism in its radical view and can be described as an important symbol of the independent development of the Embodied Cognition. The radical view of embodied cognition emphasizes that representation is not needed. On the other hand, due to the influence of representations in Traditional cognitive science, there are various degrees of "compromise" theories born in the Embodied Cognition and the Embodied functionalism represented by Clark have become the mainstream in the Embodied Cognition, which accept some hypothesis of representation. the moderate view of embodied cognition emphasizes that representation should be retained in embodied cognition. First, the representative views of two different embodied cognitive views are introduced. One is the Enactive cognition proposed by Varela. The Enactive cognition, as a representative theory against representation in embodied cognition, is regarded as radical. The second is embodied functionalism proposed by Clark. As a mild point of view, Embodied Functionalism emphasizes the transformation of representation. There is an important connection between the transformation of representation and the problem of symbol grounding. Clark's representation is action-oriented and solves the problem of symbol neutrality in the previous cognition science. Although representation show strong vitality, it still cannot be used in all fields of the psychology. As embodied cognition develop in sensorimotor system and language studies, representations should be change and use careful. The radical cognitive researchers should devote more energy to the methodology and the tools of Embodied Cognition. The third part discusses the status and meaning of representation in psychology. In addition, discuss the Multiple realizability. The problem of multiple realizability is not the focus of radical embodied cognition and moderate embodied cognition, but it is still a point to judge the merits of the theory. The problem of multiple realizability reminds us need to analyze the theory's tolerance to determine which theory is better. The fourth part discusses the problems of representation in theory. The radical embodied cognition has many problems that cannot be solved without representation, and mild embodied cognition cannot well combine the physical elements with representation, that is, it cannot produce a completely inclusive theory.As an example of the combination of embodied elements and representation, extended cognition born in embodied functionalism is regarded as a weird cognitive. The Parity Principle of extended cognition is not a good hypothesis to explain human psychology. However, in the process of explaining the knowledge of sensory movement, the non-representational radical embodied cognition appears to lack the explanation strength. In the last paragraph, the paper makes a historical analysis of two kinds of embodied cognition, discusses the advantages and disadvantages of two different views of embodied cognition. Both of them are influenced by functionalism. The future work of mild embodied cognition should focus on the transformation of the representation. Draw a line between representational and non-representational is useless. The radical embodied cognition is not the only way out for psychology. The radical embodied cognition researchers should focus on the integration of embodied cognition with other disciplines. Related Articles | Metrics

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Green Transformational Leadership and Team Green Behavior：An Indigenous Study from the Perspective of Social Cognitive Theory min-hui TANG Jian PENG 2019, 42(6): 1478-1484.  Abstract ( )   PDF (750KB) ( )   Faced with the increasing environmental pollution, the society has called organizations to take the environmental responsibility and to adopt green management practice. Since leaders are always regarded as the monitors of organizational activities, scholars has gradually recognized the crucial role that the leaders play in organizations’ green management, i.e., encouraging members to strive for the green goals. Hence, the concept of green transformational leadership emerged in recent years. Green transformation leadership refers to that leaders motivate followers to strive for the organizational green vision and encourage followers to achieve green performance beyond the expectation. To date, green transformational leadership has been found to facilitate followers’ green behavior, which refers to a kind of behavior that contributes to the sustainable development of the environment in the workplace. Although prior studies contribute to our understanding of the function of green transformational leadership, we still know little about the team level consequence of green transformational leadership. Nowadays, many organizations have adopted the team structure consisting of various human resources to respond to the rapidly changing market. Under this background, it is necessity to explore the effect of green transformational leadership on team green behavior. Besides, to help us gain a more comprehensive understanding of the consequences of green transformational leadership, we also aim to reveal the underlying mechanism and boundary condition of the relationship between green transformational leadership and team green behavior. Specifically, we draw on social cognitive theory and propose the mediating role of team green self-efficacy and the moderating role of team collectivism climate. Overall, this study put forward a moderated mediation model wherein green transformational leadership exert strong positive effects on team green behavior through green self-efficacy when team has a high level of collectivism climate. To test out theoretical model, we surveyed 121 work teams in manufacture industry and get 104 effective responses. The results of regression analysis showed that: (1) green transformational leadership was positively related to team green behavior; (2) team green self-efficacy mediated the relationship between green transformational leadership and team green behavior; (3) team collectivism climate moderated the positive relationship between team green self-efficacy and team green behavior, such that green self-efficacy predicted green behavior more strongly under the condition of high collectivism climate; (4) team collectivism climate moderated the indirect effect of green transformational leadership on team green behavior through the mediating role green self-efficacy, such that green transformational leadership have stronger effect on team green behavior via green self-efficacy under the condition of high collectivism climate. This study contributes to the literature in several aspects. First, this study expands our knowledge about the consequences of green transformational leadership by shifting the focus from individual green behavior to team green behavior. Second, this study responds to the call for team studies in green management literature and contributes to the literature through identifying green transformational leadership as a facilitator of team green behavior. Third, this study serves as a complementary to the prior literature by revealing the mediating mechanism (i. e., green self-efficacy) and the boundary condition (i.e., collectivism climate). Finally, our results provide some insights for practitioners with regard to promoting workplace green behavior, such as developing leaders’ green leadership and enhancing members’ confidence about their green ability. Related Articles | Metrics