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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （1844）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（1652）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impact of Academic Performance on Academic Self-efficacy of Primary School Students: The Mediating Role of Academic Stress and Self-esteem and Its Gender Differences Li Wenhui, Jiang Feng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 347-354.   Abstract （1739）      PDF（pc） （1720KB）（2074）       Knowledge map    Save The stage of primary school is an important period for the development of students' academic self-efficacy. Previous studies of academic self-efficacy were mostly conducted from the perspective of its function and role, and the empirical research on the formation mechanism of academic self-efficacy was few. According to Bandura's self-efficacy theory, the effect factors of self-efficacy include individual success or failure experiences, individual emotion and physiological state. Among them, academic performance is the most direct factor affecting academic self-efficacy , and academic stress as a negative emotional experience will have a negative impact on academic self-efficacy. And, as a self-concept closely related to self-efficacy, self-esteem can also affect academic self-efficacy. In addition, there are gender differences in academic stress and self-esteem in primary school students. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the impact of academic performance on academic self-efficacy in primary school students, as well as the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem, the moderating effect of gender. This study recruited 404 students (203 boys and 201 girls) from grade 4 to 6 in a primary school. The students' age were from 9 to 12 years, and average age was 10.14 (standard deviation was 1.32 years). All students filled out academic stress questionnaire, academic self-efficacy questionnaire and Rosenbers' self-esteem scale in a quiet classroom. We collected the academic performance of students from the nearest final examinations (Chinese, Math and English). SPSS 20.0 software and Amos 26.0 software were used for Common method biases analysis, correlation analysis, bootstrap mediating effect analysis and multiple group analysis. The results implicated that: (1) Primary school students' academic performance can positively predict academic self-efficacy. In other words, more academic performance of students can cultivate a higher level of academic self-efficacy. Thus, in primary school, we should help students to gain positive experience with high academic performance, which will effectively improve their academic self-efficacy. (2) In the relationship between academic performance and academic self-efficacy, academic stress and self-esteem played a role of chain mediated effect. Specifically, there were a negative mediated effect of academic stress, a positive mediated effect of self-esteem, and a chain mediated effect of self-esteem and academic stress. (3) There were gender differences in the chain mediating effect. In the girls group, there were a partial mediating effect and three mediating paths (the separate mediating effect of academic stress, the separate mediating effect of self-esteem and the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem); in the boys group, there were a complete mediating effect and two mediating paths (the separate mediating effect of self-esteem and the chain mediating effect of academic stress and self-esteem). This result suggested that we should pay attention to gender differences in the process of improving students' academic self-efficacy. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Daily Emotional Experiences on Self-Control: The Moderating Role of Conscious Effort Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 57-64.   Abstract （1719）      PDF（pc） （1171KB）（1511）       Knowledge map    Save Electronics are becoming the most popular entertainment tool for adolescents today, which warnings are issued both nationally and internationally about relying too much on electronic devices. The overuse of electronic devices by college students is intended to obtain rich variety of emotional experiences with minimal effort, and the overuse of electronic devices is a typical manifestation of their lack of self-control. In this context, this paper examines the influence of daily emotional experiences of college students on self-control by two closely related studies and further explores the conditions and mechanisms of this influence. Purpose: The purpose of Study 1 was to understand the current situation of daily emotional experiences of college students, such as the nature and source of daily emotional experiences, the level of conscious effort and the length of time of playing with electronic devices, etc.; In study 2, eligible subjects were chosen the basis of study 1. In addition, self-control variables were added in order to examine the effects of emotional experiences induced by different levels of conscious effort on college students' self-control. Methods: A questionnaire survey and experimental intervention were conducted among 300 college students from freshmen to juniors in Jiangsu province by cluster sampling method. Results: Study 1 found that the difference between positive and negative emotions experienced by college students in daily life was significant, and positive emotions were predominant. At the same time, the sources of emotional stimuli with low conscious effort were significantly more than those with high conscious effort, and the main sources of emotional experiences were not the same for boys and girls: boys' positive and negative emotional experiences were mainly derived from playing games and sports, while girls' were mostly derived from movies and videos, interpersonal relationships, etc. Study 2 found that the method of "conscious effort" successfully induced daily emotional experiences; the main effect of daily emotional experiences on self-control was not significant; conscious effort significantly and positively predicted self-control, and high levels of conscious effort played a positive moderating role in the relationship between daily emotional experiences and self-control. Conclusions: (1) College students' daily emotional experiences differed significantly and were dominated by positive emotional experiences, while the sources of emotional stimuli with low conscious effort were more than those with high conscious effort; (2) College students' daily emotional experiences did not have significant predictive effects on self-control, while conscious effort significantly and positively predicted self-control, and high levels of conscious effort played a moderating role in the relationship between daily emotional experiences and self-control. This research has important theoretical significance and practical value. On the practical level: Inducing emotional experience through conscious efforts not only provides a new path for emotional regulation, but also improves students' self-control behavior, which is more helpful to reduce students' dependence on mobile phones and internet addiction. On the theoretical level: First, the classification of promoting emotional experience, that is, emotional experience induced by conscious efforts or unconscious efforts; The second is to expand and deepen the theoretical model of "unconscious emotion"; Third, it is the first time to prove that "this happiness is different from that happiness", which will directly promote the study of the value field of emotion! Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （1502）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（1739）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Neural Mechanism of Language Context Influencing Self-bias Kong Chao, Liu Huanhuan, Liu Linyan, Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 258-265.   Abstract （1364）      PDF（pc） （1186KB）（1262）       Knowledge map    Save It is well known that different languages have different impacts on human cognition, emotion, and physiological states. In the context of native language, individuals tend to associate positive emotions with themselves, and negative emotions with others. This leads to the self-positive and other-negative bias. However, using a foreign language may reduce emotional involvement. We hypothesized that using a foreign language may affect the connection between identity (self vs. other) and emotion (positive vs. negative) through reducing emotional involvement. In addition, we hypothesized that the ability of language control when they switch between two languages may also affect bilinguals’ connection between identity and emotion. Language control refers to the choice of using the target language in a specific situation and inhibiting the interference of non-target language. Participants do not need to switch between languages in the monolingual context, which requires less inhibitory processing (global language control occurred). In contrast, participants have to switch from one language to another in bilingual context frequently by inhibiting the interference from nontarget language (local language control occurred). We hypothesized that connection between identity and emotion occurred automatically under global language control, while it required more cognitive resources under local language control. Thus, the automatic process may be weakened in the context of mixed language. In the current study, bilingual context and monolingual context were designed. The stimuli in each scanning run was either presented in twolanguage or in one-language context, corresponding to local and global language control. The variables of language (Chinese vs. English), identity (Self vs. Others) and emotional valence (Positive vs. Negative) were manipulated. Identity cues were represented by " 我", " 他", "I" and "He". The data of 29 unbalanced bilinguals whose native language was Chinese were collected by fMRI scanner. In each trial, the identity cues were presented first, followed by emotional words. The participants were required to determine whether the emotional words were true or pseudoword words (false words were generated by replacing radicals or letters of real words), and their reactions were recorded. The DPABI and SPM were then used to preprocess the data and do F test. For the brain regions with significant interactions of identity and emotional valence, we extracted the beta value of brain region and performed repeated measures ANOVA to compare the activation of different conditions. At the same time, repeated measures ANOVA was also performed for the reaction times. The fMRI results showed that in the monolingual L2 context, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the left inferior parietal lobule showed greater activation in the other-positive condition and the self-negative condition than that in the self-positive condition and the other-negative condition. In bilingual L1 context, the right precuneus exhibited significantly greater activation in self-positive condition than other-positive condition. The response times results showed that the reaction of the self-positive condition was faster than that of the other-positive condition in the monolingual L1 and L2 context, respectively. In the bilingual L2 context, the reaction of the other-negative condition was faster than that of the self-negative condition. Based on the findings, we infer that: (1) In the monolingual L2 context, the self-negative and the other-positive bias were in conflict with each other because they were not consistent with the self-positive bias. The frontoparietal network was employed to process the conflicts. (2) The precuneus activity in the bilingual L1 context may reflect the attribution processes that distinguishing others’ emotions and self-emotion, leading to one of them is more sensitive to self. (3) The differences between global and local language control may indicate that bilinguals have more cognitive resources to solve the conflicts between identity and emotion in foreign language context (global language control occurred), while in the context of mixed language, more cognitive resources are required when processing L2 than L1 (local language control occurred). It seems that participants have extra cognitive resources to process the association between identity and emotion when using their native language. Overall, these findings suggest that language context induces bilinguals’ language control, which affects their resolution of the conflicts between identity and emotional valence. Key words language context, language control, self-bias, emotion, left inferior frontal gyrus, left inferior parietal lobule, right precuneus Participants do not need to switch between languages in the monolingual context, which requires less inhibitory processing (global language control occurred). In contrast, participants have to switch from one language to another in bilingual context frequently by inhibiting the interference from nontarget language (local language control occurred). We hypothesized that connection between identity and emotion occurred automatically under global language control, while it required more cognitive resources under local language control. Thus, the automatic process may be weakened in the context of mixed language. In the current study, bilingual context and monolingual context were designed. The stimuli in each scanning run was either presented in twolanguage or in one-language context, corresponding to local and global language control. The variables of language (Chinese vs. English), identity (Self vs. Others) and emotional valence (Positive vs. Negative) were manipulated. Identity cues were represented by " 我", " 他", "I" and "He". The data of 29 unbalanced bilinguals whose native language was Chinese were collected by fMRI scanner. In each trial, the identity cues were presented first, followed by emotional words. The participants were required to determine whether the emotional words were true or pseudoword words (false words were generated by replacing radicals or letters of real words), and their reactions were recorded. The DPABI and SPM were then used to preprocess the data and do F test. For the brain regions with significant interactions of identity and emotional valence, we extracted the beta value of brain region and performed repeated measures ANOVA to compare the activation of different conditions. At the same time, repeated measures ANOVA was also performed for the reaction times. The fMRI results showed that in the monolingual L2 context, the left inferior frontal gyrus and the left inferior parietal lobule showed greater activation in the other-positive condition and the self-negative condition than that in the self-positive condition and the other-negative condition. In bilingual L1 context, the right precuneus exhibited significantly greater activation in self-positive condition than other-positive condition. The response times results showed that the reaction of the self-positive condition was faster than that of the other-positive condition in the monolingual L1 and L2 context, respectively. In the bilingual L2 context, the reaction of the other-negative condition was faster than that of the self-negative condition. Based on the findings, we infer that: (1) In the monolingual L2 context, the self-negative and the other-positive bias were in conflict with each other because they were not consistent with the self-positive bias. The frontoparietal network was employed to process the conflicts. (2) The precuneus activity in the bilingual L1 context may reflect the attribution processes that distinguishing others’ emotions and self-emotion, leading to one of them is more sensitive to self. (3) The differences between global and local language control may indicate that bilinguals have more cognitive resources to solve the conflicts between identity and emotion in foreign language context (global language control occurred), while in the context of mixed language, more cognitive resources are required when processing L2 than L1 (local language control occurred). It seems that participants have extra cognitive resources to process the association between identity and emotion when using their native language. Overall, these findings suggest that language context induces bilinguals’ language control, which affects their resolution of the conflicts between identity and emotional valence. 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Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Early Adolescents’ Smartphone Addiction Severity: The Mediating Roles of General and Social Anxiety and the Moderating Role of Family Socioeconomic Status Zhou Nan, Zang Ning, Wang Shaofan, Li Zixuan, Chen Ling, Li Beilei, Cao Hongjian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 325-333.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240209 Abstract （1296）      PDF（pc） （1218KB）（1370）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to the developmental sequela of early maltreatment experiences, including addictive behaviors. Emotional abuse and neglect are particularly influential in shaping children’s later socioemotional functioning because, compared to the other types of early maltreatment, they are more pervasive and their consequences are often not immediately observable. Notably, research on the link between emotional maltreatment and early adolescents’ addictive behaviors is limited in its primary focus on the direct associations, leaving the underlying mechanisms underexamined, and in its lack of differentiation between emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Based on the addiction compensation theory, this study sought to examine the links between early emotional abuse and emotional neglect and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction severity using data from a sample of 844, 7th graders from H province, China. This study also tested the mediating roles of general and social anxiety given that they may exhibit differential roles in explaining how early emotional maltreatment may elevate the risk of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may contribute to the formation of individuals’ shame-based cognitive-emotional scheme, which results in individuals’ habitual hiding from others and ultimately leads to social anxiety. Further, family socioeconomic status (SES) may also factor into the associations among early emotional abuse and emotional neglect, general and social anxiety, and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. On the one hand, early adolescents from low SES families have limited resources that are unfavorable for development and thus the negative impact of early emotional abuse and neglect, such as anxious symptoms, would be stronger than those from high SES families. On the other hand, the lack of social support in family settings with low SES also may diminish adolescents’ resilience to cope with the consequences of early emotional maltreatment. Thus, the moderating role of family SES was examined in this study. The present path models revealed that early adolescents’ social anxiety only mediated the positive associations between early emotional abuse and their smartphone addiction severity. Moreover, the mediating effect of social anxiety was only present in early adolescents from families with high SES. These results delineated how early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may uniquely relate to early adolescents’ smartphone addiction via their associations with general and social anxiety. The incorporation of social anxiety beyond the general anxiety highlighted the importance of differentiating the two types of anxiety as well as documenting their respective roles. Further, the results also point to the necessity of moving beyond the average population to further explore the potential heterogeneity in the currently examined associations across different subgroups. The findings provide insights for future trauma-informed interventions that aim to reduce the incidence of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, for early adolescents with early emotional abuse and neglect experiences, practitioners should attend to their potential anxious symptoms. Moreover, for early adolescents from high SES families carrying the burdens of early emotional maltreatment, special attention is needed because of their potential social anxiety issues. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Social Exclusion on The Visual Working Memory Capacity Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 11-18.   Abstract （1288）      PDF（pc） （879KB）（1116）       Knowledge map    Save Present study explores the influence of social exclusion on the visual working memory capacity (WMC) of nonsocial and social stimuli. A cyberball game was used to manipulate social exclusion. Nonsense shapes (NS) in study 1 were adopted as nonsocial stimuli, while biology motion (BM) in study 2a and human faces in study 2b were adopted as social stimuli. In study 1, 49 participants were asked to remember 1 - 4 NS. The results showed that socially excluded participants had a lower WMC than the socially accepted group. In Experiment 2a and 2b, 44 and 54 participants were asked to remember 1-5 BM and 1 - 4 human faces showing three different emotions (angry, happy, neutral). The results demonstrated that socially excluded participants had a larger WMC than the compared group in BM and three types of emotional face. The results of study 1 and 2 suggested social exclusion would exert an influence on individual's visual WMC, but the direction of this effect may be inconsistent due to the different attributes of the stimuli, when the stimulus is non-social stimuli unrelated to belonging need, social exclusion would reduce the individual's visual WMC. When the stimulus is social stimuli associated with the belonging need (neutral & emotional), the visual WMC of the individual would increase. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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THE INFLUENCE OF POSITIVE EMOJIS ON CONSUMERS’ PURCHASE INTENTION Wang Yaqin, Liu Zishuang, Jiang Jiang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 435-442.   Abstract （1230）      PDF（pc） （1442KB）（1175）       Knowledge map    Save With the development of social networks, emojis have become an important tool for people’s daily communication. Sometimes it is difficult for us to express emotions to each other through words. Emojis can solve the “double blind” embarrassment of cross-screen interaction. Now that emojis are not limited to social communication, they have also begun to be widely used in the product marketing field. Two experiments are designed in this research to investigate whether positive emojis can promote consumers’ purchase intentions and explore the mediator effect of involvement and moderator effect of product type. Before the formal study, a pre-survey on the usage trend of emojis had been done. The survey showed that more than 90% of consumers use emojis more frequently. Most of them show a positive attitude and a high evaluation of the use of positive emojis in product design, and think that positive emojis are more suitable for FMCG (Fast Moving Consumer Goods), not luxury goods, such as specific performance in the three categories of food and beverage, daily necessities and clothing. But positive emojis are not applicable to electronic products, luxury goods and other valuables. Study 1 attaches positive emojis to products to explore the influence of positive emojis on purchase intention in product design. This study used a single-factor inter-subject design. In this study, 202 subjects were recruited, 15 subjects who did not answer seriously were excluded, 47 subjects were excluded from group manipulation of independent variables, and 140 subjects remained, which was divided into three groups: positive emoji group (n = 39), blank control group (n = 61) and pattern group (n = 40). It was found that positive emojis in the design of products increased consumers’ involvement, and thus increased their purchase intention, compared with blank controls and patterns (Mpositive emoji group = 4.78, SDpositive emoji group = 1.42; Mpattern group = 3.76, SDpattern group = 1.27; Mcontrol group = 3.09, SDcontrol group = 1.17; F(2,136) = 22.30, p < 0.001, η2p = 0.25). On the basis of Study 1, Study 2 added the moderating variable——product type (hedonic/utilitarian) to further explore whether there are boundary conditions for the influence of positive emojis on consumers’ purchase intention. Slightly different from Study 1, Study 2 used positive emojis in product advertisements and divided the products into hedonic products and utilitarian products to explore the effect of positive emojis on purchase intention in different product types. This study adopted a 2×2 inter-subject design. 212 subjects were assigned randomly to one of four conditions: positive emoji-hedonic (n = 52), positive emoji-utilitarian (n = 54), non-emoji-hedonic (n = 53), non-emoji-utilitarian (n = 53). Studies have shown that positive emojis can further increase consumers’ intention to purchase hedonic products, while when the products are utilitarian, the presence or absence of positive emojis has a relatively small effect on consumers’ purchase intentions (t(210) = 6.40, p < 0.001, d = 0.13). Examining the model of moderated mediating effect, it was found that the process of positive emojis influencing the purchase intention through the involvement is moderated by the product type, and there was a moderated mediating model. Through two experiments, this study revealed that under two marketing methods, product design(Study 1) and advertising(Study 2), positive emojis have a positive impact on consumers’ purchase intention, and positive emojis further improve consumers’ purchase intention by increasing their involvement. And positive emojis are more likely to increase consumers’ purchase intention to hedonistic products than utilitarian ones. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Preview on Contextual Predictability Effects during Reading Zhao Sainan, Li Lin, Zhang Lijuan, Wang Jingxin Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 770-778.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230401 Abstract （1148）      PDF（pc） （1514KB）（975）       Knowledge map    Save Most previous research have found contextual predictability effects eliminated in invalid preview which indicates contextual predictability effects depend on valid preview (like normal reading). The researchers manipulated invalid preview conditions by presenting various kinds of words or nonwords that were different from target words in parafoveal vision. It has been well established that invalid preview can cause various costs that may overwrite the contextual predictability effects. However, it is still hard to tell which is the cause of the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid preview conditions: the cost caused by invalid preview, or the absence of valid preview. Solving this problem is crucial to understand how the top-bottom predictability is influenced by bottom-top preview information. The present research investigated this effect with incremental paradigm by manipulating parafovea without preview information. EyeLink 1000 Plus eye-tracker recorded participants' (40 participants in experiment 1 and 44 participants in experiment 2) right-eye gaze when they read the sentences that contained target words. Sentences were displayed in Song font in black-on-gray text on a 24-inch ASUS LCD monitor (1920×1080 pixels) with each character subtended approximately 0.9 degrees of visual angle. Experiment 1 was a 2(contextual predictability: high, low)×2(preview type: normal, none)within subjects design. Stimuli were 164 sets of Chinese sentences containing two interchangeable target words that were of either high or low contextual predictability. There was no preview information before directly fixed word in none preview condition, which was different from normal reading pattern and may influence the results. The aim of experiment 2 was to further verify and extend the findings from experiment 1 in a more normal reading form. In order to create a normal reading pattern with minimal interference for vocabulary processing, experiment 2 used meaningless and simple ※ as invalid preview. It was a 2 (contextual predictability: high, low) × 2(preview type: normal, ※) within subjects design. The results showed clear effects of preview type in both experiments with shorter reading times and word skipping rate for normal preview condition, in line with findings from previous studies. It also replicated robust and reliable contextual predictability effects on eye movement time measures (first fixation duration, gaze duration, total reading time) in both experiment 1 and experiment 2, which were contributed to longer fixation durations for high predictability words than low predictability words. More importantly, the current results showed no interaction between contextual predictability and preview types on any measures in both experiment 1 and experiment 2. It suggested that the contextual predictability effects with none preview and ※ preview were similar to normal preview. The results of Bayes analyses also provided strong evidence for the additive models. The key point of present study is the interaction between contextual predictability and preview type. The robust addictive effects suggest the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid previews is not due to the lack of valid preview but the overwrite of the invalid preview costs. Therefore, this research indicates contextual predictability influences word processing independently rather than depending on the valid preview information. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The weight of morality: the weight-morality embodiment effect and the modulation effect of the metaphorical association Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 42-49.   Abstract （1135）      PDF（pc） （936KB）（653）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies of embodiment effects have suggested that these effects are directly induced by sensory-motor experience. However, this explanation overemphasizes the influence of body states and ignores modulation from any kind of cognitive factors, which limits the explanation of the boundary conditions and mediators of embodiment effects. One of the most well-known embodiment effects is caused by the sensation of weight. Many studies have found that the experience of weight can subconsciously impact complex cognitive activities. This study investigated the influence of weight experience on the processing of moral concept, that is the “weight-morality” embodiment effect, and especially focused on the modulation effect of the metaphorical association. A joint-classification response task was used to test the embodiment effect. The classification task included two blocks, and 80 trials in each block tested one joint-classification condition (i.e. "heavy-moral, light-immoral" vs. "light-moral, heavy-immoral" condition). In each trial, followed the fixation was a Chinese two-character word with moral or immoral valence, presented up to 3 seconds in the center of the monitor. Two identical computer mouse devices with different weights (70g vs. 200g) were used for participants to experience weight sensation and to classify the words, with the devices placed in their left and right hand respectively. Participants were required to accurately classify the moral words presented in the monitor as quickly as possible, clicking the light or the heavy mouse according to the instruction. There were breaks in each condition for the participants to exchange the mouse devices between their two hands and rest their arms. Event-related potential (ERP) data were collected and we focused on the late positive component (LPC), which has been found that the motivationally salient congruent trials elicit significantly larger LPC than do incongruent trials. In Experiment 1 (24 participants), the weight-morality embodiment effect was explored in the default metaphorical association condition (i.e., heavy-moral, light-immoral). In Experiment 2 (22 participants), the moral metaphor on the vertical dimension was activated before the task. Since it has been demonstrated that there were moral-up/immoral-down as well as light-up/heavy-down associations, the metaphorical association between weight sensation and moral concept might be changed into “light-up-moral /heavy-down-immoral”. By such manipulation, the modulation effect of the metaphorical association on the “weight-morality” embodiment was investigated. The results in Experiment 1 showed that the response time (RT) in the "heavy-moral, light-immoral" condition was significantly shorter, accompanied by a larger LPC than that in the "light-moral, heavy-immoral" condition. In Experiment 2, on account that the moral metaphor on vertical dimension was activated, the results showed a reversed pattern in relation to Experiment 1. Specifically, we found that the RT in the "light-moral, heavy-immoral" condition was significantly shorter than that in the "heavy-moral, light-immoral" condition, which was also accompanied by a larger LPC. Combined evidence in the two experiments indicated that the “weight-morality” embodiment effect was influenced by the metaphorical association. The larger LPC in the conditions congruent with the activated “weight-morality” association indicated that compared with the incongruent conditions, the “weight-morality” metaphorical association in the congruent condition was more salient and had a higher arousal level, which might promote the categorization response. In conclusion, results in this study indicated that the experience of weight could facilitate the processing of moral concepts, benefited from the metaphorical association of weight-morality, which guides and moderates the embodiment effect. This study suggested that the performance of the embodiment effects depends not only on the sensory-motor experience but also on the metaphorical associations primed in the embodiment process. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Parental Responses to Negative Emotions and the Potential Risk of Personality Disorder in Adolescence Wenjuan Zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 586-593.   Abstract （1115）      PDF（pc） （868KB）（1278）       Knowledge map    Save For a long time, clinicians and researchers have opposed giving children and adolescents a personality disorder diagnosis. However, a burgeoning number of empirical evidence made it clear that personality disorders occurred in childhood and adolescence. There are a large body of research supporting the important role of family influences on the development of particular type of personality disorder, especially the relationships between family emotional environment and borderline personality disorders. But it is inappropriate to evaluate adolescents’ personality from the perspective of categorical model of personality disorders, which may increase the stigmatization and impede the development of personality. Dimensional perspective of personality disorders in DSM-5 Section III (Negative Affectivity, Detachment, Antagonism, Disinhibition, and Psychoticism) is considered a better approach to define personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. Because it helps us understand adolescents’ maladaptive personality traits from a developmental psychopathology perspective and connects personality development during childhood and adolescence with adult personality disorders, other than labeling them personality disorder categories. Thus, the present study seeks to evaluate adolescents’ pathological personality traits from the perspective of dimensional model of personality disorders. We aimed to explore the profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits and its associations with parents' responses to negative emotions. First, we identified maladaptive personality profiles of adolescents based on 25 pathological personality traits in the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Then we further tested the group differences of parental responses to negative emotions on adolescents’ maladaptive personality profiles. Last, we examined the interactions between parental non-supportive and supportive reactions to negative emotions on the development of adolescents’ pathological personality traits. The study was conducted in six middle schools in mainland China. Seven hundred and one adolescents were recruited in this sample. Due to a large number of missing data (> 10%) or suspected random responding, 59 participants were excluded from analyses. The final sample (642 adolescents) comprised the following distribution: 53.6% male, 46.4% female; grade 7 (41%), grade 8 (46%), and grade 10 (13%). The school principals and head teachers coordinated the assessment procedure. All the participants were informed that participation in this study was voluntary and their answers were confidential. Researchers went to each classroom to make the instructions consistent and clear. The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 and Parental Responses to Adolescents’ Negative Emotions Scale were conducted by paper and pencil during regular daily classes in each classroom with 40-60 students. It took about 35-50 minutes to finish the whole questionnaires. We provided free lectures about personality development in adolescence as a reward. The results demonstrated that: (1) three profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits were identified: low-risk (25%; low scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits), median-risk (49.1%; median scores across the 23 low-order pathological traits, with the exception of Impulsivity and Rigid Perfectionism), and high-risk (24.9%; high scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits). (2) Adolescents in the three personality disorder risk profiles demonstrated significantly different on all the parental reactions to negative emotions. Specifically, parental warmth/responsiveness and punishment to negative emotions showed significantly different across the three profiles. However, parental expressive encouragement showed non-significant between low-risk and median-risk profiles, whereas parental minimization showed non-significant between median-risk and high-risk profiles. (3) The moderating effect of parental supportive reactions on the relationship between parental non-supportive reactions and adolescents’ pathological personality traits was significant. When parents' supportive response modes were relatively high, the negative path effects were weakened. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Temporal Emotion Asymmetry and its Relationship with Moral Judgment and Value Evaluation Xie Ruyue, Jin Lei, Hao Haiping, Du Gang, Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 530-537.   Abstract （1112）      PDF（pc） （327KB）（1121）       Knowledge map    Save Abstract: Mental time travel refers to the faculty that allows humans to mentally project themselves backward in time to relive or forward to pre-live events. Mentally reliving past events is also known as episodic memory in the literature. Mentally reliving future events is also known as episodic future thinking. Previous studies have found that past and future mental time travels share phenomenological characteristics and activate similar brain parts. Other studies have found differences between them, with individuals leaning more towards the future. Of particular relevance to the phenomenon of future bias are studies that have examined temporal emotion asymmetry. Temporal emotion asymmetry refers to people experiencing greater affect when thinking about the future than the affect they experience when thinking about the past. This is true for both positively and negatively valenced events. Emotion differences between past and future thinking are robust and emerge early in development. Previous studies found that temporal emotion asymmetry appears to be present in children from at least 6 years onward, and once established the size of the temporal emotion asymmetry effect did not vary by age or scenario. This article explains the temporal emotion asymmetry from the perspectives of mental simulation and psychological distance. First, the difference between future and past mental simulation may be an important factor affecting the temporal emotions asymmetry. Mental simulation refers to how an individual projects himself onto different events, spaces, or hypothetical reality, a human-specific ability. Compared to simulating past events, people who simulate future events are typically based primarily on focal aspects of events to the neglect of more peripheral event features or aspects of the event context that might moderate affective impact, and this can systematically lead to overestimations of the affective impact of events in the future. Second, one reason people are more emotionally oriented to the future is that the future is psychologically closer to the past. The reduction of psychological distance leads to an increase in the intensity of emotional experience. TEA can influence temporal value asymmetry and temporal asymmetries in moral judgment. (1) Temporal value asymmetry refers to people’s tendency to value future experiences more than equivalent experiences in the equidistant past. For example, Individuals believe they should be paid more for doing the same job a month later than when they did a job a month ago. The reason why they make these asymmetrical valuations is that contemplating future events produces greater affect than does contemplate past events. (2) Logically, an unethical behavior performed yesterday should also be unethical if performed tomorrow. However, previous studies suggest that the timing of a transgression has a systematic effect on people’s beliefs about its moral acceptability. Future transgressions are judged to be more deliberate, less moral, and more worthy of punishment than equivalent transgressions in the past (we will label these temporal asymmetries in moral judgment). Because people’s emotional reactions tend to be more extreme for future events than for past events, such emotional reactions often guide moral intuitions, and judgments of moral behavior may be more extreme in prospect than in retrospect. Future research directions include (1) Temporal emotion asymmetry under different temporal orientations. Temporal orientation, also known as temporal focus, refers to the degree to which people pay attention to the past, present, and future, as well as the tendency to produce emotional and behavioral responses to these time zones; (2) Considering the temporal emotion asymmetry of depressed groups; (3) Exploring the differences in temporal emotion asymmetry from different perspectives. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Effect of Daily rhythm on Cognitive Functions Peng Yudi, Xie Tian, Ma Ning Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 282-290.   Abstract （1109）      PDF（pc） （764KB）（1007）       Knowledge map    Save Besides the physiological state, circadian variations have also been found in subjective feelings and neurobehavioral functions crucial for the execution of our daily tasks. However, few studies investigated the effect of daily rhythm based on Chinese native groups, and whether there is a discrepancy in the daily fluctuations of different cognitive functions remains unknown. To reveal effect of daily rhythms on performance in Chinese individuals comprehensively, the present study measured the changes of physiological state (body temperature, cardiac activity and arterial pressure), subjective feelings (self-report sleepiness) and objective performances (vigilance, inhibition control, working memory) in Chinese adults every two hours during a day (9:00-21:00) under laboratory control. To be specific, a single factor (time of day: 9:00,11:00.13:00,15:00,17:00,21:00) within-subject design was employed in the current study, and a total of 27 healthy young adults (11 males, 16 females) were selected as our subjects according to rigorous criteria. At each time point, we firstly used KSS and a seven-point Likert Scale to measure the participants’ subjective sleepiness and mood, respectively. Then, participants were tested on a psychomotor vigilance task, a go/no go task and two working memory tasks under different cognitive loads (one-back and two-back) sequentially. Additionally, participants’ oral temperature, heart rate and arterial pressure were measured as indicators of their physiological state every hour throughout the experiment. In general, the results revealed that participants were at their highest level of cognitive performance in the morning (09:00–11:00), but there was a post-noon dip at 13:00–15:00, suggesting beneficial effect as a short nap on performance. Performance improves again during the evening (17:00–21:00), which is in line with previous research. Moreover, in this study, differences in daily variations have also been found not only between self-assessments and objective measurements but also in the performance of different neurobehavioral functions. Specifically, while the participants showed a stable performance of vigilance during daytime, there was an obvious fluctuation in their self-report sleepiness in the afternoon. At 15:00, subjective sleepiness reached its highest level in the daytime, whereas the objective performance of neurobehavioral functions (vigilance, inhibition control, and working memory) had improved. At 17:00, associated with diminished subjective sleepiness, vigilance and working memory performance were relatively optimal at that time, but the execution in the go/no go task decreased and reached its lowest level, reflecting that inhibition control is worst in the evening independent of other executive functions. Moreover, while the performance of inhibition control improved at 19:00, the performance of vigilance and working memory showed a post-dinner dip at the same time, suggesting a non-optimal time for study and examinations specific to Chinese individuals. Additionally, when the participants performed the working memory tasks under different memory loads, their performance also demonstrated different daily variations at 9:00-13:00. This discrepancy suggests that the impact of daily rhythms on the same neurobehavior function may vary under different cognitive loads and further research is needed to understanding the underlying neural mechanism. Taken together, the present study shows that daily rhythm modifies our subjective feelings and basic neurobehavior functions (attention, inhibition control and working memory) differently, which may explain oscillations in the performance of different tasks during the day. The findings provide valuable insights into planning daily schedules, optimizing working arrangements, and ensuring safety based on human rhythm, providing preliminary evidence for illuminating the relationship between daily rhythms and behavioral performance in the future. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （1091）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（1246）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Analyses of Multilevel Moderated Mediation Model Jie Fang Zhong-Lin WEN Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (1): 221-229.   Abstract （1090）      PDF（pc） （1206KB）（1052）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, multilevel mediation and multilevel moderation have been frequently used in social sciences, respectively. However, if they are integrated together, there are totally 12 kinds of multilevel moderated mediation models: 2 (multilevel mediation type) ×2 (level of moderator) ×3 (moderated mediation path). First, there are two types of multilevel mediation when two-level data is involved. One type is 1-1-1 multilevel mediation in which all variables are measured at Level 1, and the model includes between-cluster and within-cluster mediating effects. The other type has at least one variable at Level 2 (e.g., 2-1-1 multilevel mediation), and the model includes between-cluster mediating effect only. Second, there are two types of moderators. One is the moderator at Level 1, and the other is the moderator at Level 2. Third, there are three types of moderated paths: the first-stage (i.e., independent variable→mediator), the second-stage (i.e., mediator→dependent variable) and the dual-stage, which includes the paths of the two stages. All of the above-mentioned multilevel moderated mediation models are briefed in this paper, so that empirical researchers could know which kind of multilevel moderated mediation model meets their need and how to analyze it. It is worth noting that all predict variables of Level 1 are centered at the cluster mean, and then observed cluster mean is used as a Level-2 predictor. In this way, the effect of the predict variable of Level 1 can be divided into within-cluster and between-cluster effects. However, using observed cluster means as the proxy of the true cluster mean might result in a bias of mediating effect, and a multilevel structural equation model (MSEM) is more precise. In MSEM, a variable measured at Level 1 is orthogonally decomposed into a Level-1 latent variable and a Level-2 latent variable. There are four methods with regard to modeling moderated mediation in MSEM: the orthogonal partition (OP) method，random coefficient prediction (RCP) method，latent moderated structural (LMS) equations method, and Bayesian plausible values (BPV) method. The core issue of these four methods is how to deal with the latent interaction term. In the OP method, the interaction term is manually calculated. In the RCP method, the random slope at Level 1 is considered a latent variable at Level 2, and the latent variable is used as an outcome variable to test the interaction effect. In the LMS method, the joint distribution of the indicators is approximated by a finite mixture distribution, and the expectation maximization algorithm is applied to maximization of the log-likelihood function of this distribution, which results in maximum likelihood interaction estimates. In BPV method, the key to this estimation is that it allows generating a Bayesian analog of factor scores for latent variables by sampling from their posterior distribution some number of times. When the sample size is large enough (i.e., the number of groups is over 200 and the group size is over 30), LMS method is recommended to analyze the multilevel moderated mediation; otherwise, Bayesian plausible values method is preferred. An empirical example is employed to demonstrate how to conduct multilevel moderated mediation analysis with multilevel models and BPV method by Mplus. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Association of Shape Concepts between Name Pronunciation and Faces：the evidence from behavior and ERP Yan Xiangbo, Li Dong, Yang Yi, Tian Yangyang, Li Zhao, Jiang Zhongqing Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 266-273.   Abstract （1088）      PDF（pc） （825KB）（799）       Knowledge map    Save In Previous study, we found a cross-modal mapping effect between person's name pronunciation and face shape. Participants tended to think that round lip names match round face, flat lip names match sharp face (Yan et al., 2020). However, there are mainly two different views on the formation mechanism of sound shape cross modal mapping: shared physical perceptual attributes and shared connotative attributes (Sidhu & Pexman, 2018). Considering that the pronunciation of names also contained round lip / flat lip vowels (/ o / or / i /), which had the stimulation basis to convey the concept of shape, and the face shape was also a more vivid feature of the face, there might be conceptual connection between the pronunciation of names and the face. Therefore, this study used ERP technology with high temporal resolution to reveal which stage of the cognitive processing occurs in the cross-modal correspondence effect between name pronunciation and face shape, and to explore whether there is a relationship between name pronunciation and face shape. In the ERP research conducted by Zhou et al. (2016) using the priming paradigm, music clips that can convey the concept of space (closed or open space) were used as the priming material, and pictures showing the space scene (open or closed space scene pictures) were used as the target material, so that the subjects could judge whether the target picture was an open scene or a closed scene. The results showed that music and pictures were related to the spatial concept. Inspired by this research, this study used priming paradigm and face shape judgment task (used name pronunciation as priming stimulus and face material as target stimulus) to investigate whether name pronunciation could directly initiate face shape processing. In behavior results, we found that the correct rate of the subjects under the consistent condition is significantly higher than that under the inconsistent condition, and the reaction time under the consistent condition is significantly lower than that under the inconsistent condition. In event-related potential results, we found that there was no significant experimental effect showed in the early stage of face processing indexed by P1 (occipital area) and N170 (bilateral occipitotemporal area). On the other hand, compared with the consistent condition, we found that N400 was more negative in the central -parietal region of the brain under inconsistent conditions. In summary, the behavioral and ERP results of this study consistently show that there is a relationship between the pronunciation of names and the shape concept of faces, Furthermore, there is no evidence to support that the priming effect occurs in the early stage of face processing, and there is no evidence that name pronunciation and face share physical perceptual attributes. The N400 component reflecting semantic violation presented the difference between the consistent and the inconsistent condition, which confirmed that there is a conceptual connection between the pronunciation of names and the shape of faces. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Age-related Differences in Emotional Conflict Control between Adolescents and Adults: A Behavioral and ERP Study lin -zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (2): 307-319.   Abstract （1068）      PDF（pc） （1190KB）（980）       Knowledge map    Save Described as a "stormy period", adolescents may have a greater need for emotional inhibition and control than younger children and older adults. The ability of emotion control is associated with risk-taking behavior, abnormal psychological and behavioral development, and is crucial for adolescents. Previous researches suggested that there may be an undifferentiated and inefficient manner in which adolescents recruited the process of cognitive control and conflict detection. Thus, emotional information processing and emotional control during this special and critical period must be better understood. The first objective of the present study was to investigate differences in emotional conflict control between adolescents and adults. The event-related potential (ERP) was used to examine the differences in emotional conflict control between adolescents and adults. The second objective was to examine individual performance in the face-judging task and word-judging task. 31 early adolescents (12 females; Mage=12.66 years old) and 33 adults (17 females; Mage =20.15 years old) completed the face-word Stroop task. In this task, emotional words were overlaid on the emotional faces to generate congruent conditions (CC) and incongruent conditions (IC), and participants were asked to judge the valence of faces (face-judging task) or words (word-judging task). The participants' electroencephalography (EEG) signals were recorded during the whole task. Age differences in behavioral performance and ERP components related to emotional information processing between the two groups were analyzed. The results showed that: (1) Stroop effect was found in adolescents in the face-judging task (the response time was shorter in the congruent conditions than in the incongruent conditions), but for adults, the Stroop effect was found in both face and word judging task; (2) In adolescents, the N450 amplitude induced by incongruent conditions was significantly larger than that induced by congruent conditions; (3) The Stroop effect of N450 only appeared in the word judging task, while the Stroop effect of SP only appeared in the face judging task. The behavioral results might because of the worse conflict detection and resolution of adolescents, and the effort (RT) expended for the congruent stimuli is equivalent to that for the incongruent stimuli. The results of N450 might indicate that adolescents devote more cognitive and neural resources than adults to detecting conflict. These results provide neurological evidence that adolescents are less able to deal with emotional conflict than adults, which may be related to the immaturity of the prefrontal cortex associated with emotional control. Moreover, emotional conflict control is composed of conflict detection and conflict resolution, and  the accumulation of cognitive and neural resources in the former process may affect the latter process. Both the behavioral and neural results show that adolescents seemed to be less capable of emotional conflict control because of the immaturity of prefrontal regions. However, factors such as participants' age-related reading experience, selection and independent assessment of face stimulus materials, and control for the congruent of word and face stimuli should all be taken into account. Future research could consider conflict control of positive emotions as a study object, and examine comparative characteristics over a larger age range. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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EEG Neurofeedback for Working Memory Enhancement: A Literature Review Zhou Wenbin, Nan Wenya, Fu Yunfa Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 514-521.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240301 Abstract （1066）      PDF（pc） （627KB）（1113）       Knowledge map    Save Working memory refers to the ability to maintain and manipulate information over a period of seconds. In daily life, many complex cognitive activities such as learning and decision-making need the participation of working memory. Whether working memory performance can be improved by certain ways of training has been a hot research topic. Neurofeedback (NF) is a type of biofeedback that uses the principle of operational conditioning to enable individuals to learn regulating their own brain activity. During electroencephalogram (EEG) NF training, the EEG signals are recorded from single or multiple electrodes attached on the scalp and relevant features are extracted and presented to the training individuals in real time by visual, auditory, or combined visual-auditory forms. Thus, participants can be aware of their brain state in real time. When their brain activity meets some predefined rewarded criteria, they will be rewarded by the feedback interface that presents real time feedback feature, such as increasing the sphere size in visual feedback, music quality in auditory feedback, etc. With NF training practice, they will learn how to adjust their brain activities that underlie a specific behavior or pathology. A large amount of studies have shown that NF training can improve cognitive ability and behavioral performance in both clinical patients and healthy population. Regarding the NF training effectiveness for working memory enhancement, the existing research conclusions are not consistent due to the variations of the experimental design, training protocol, participants’ population, and sample size in the literature. Therefore, this study systematically reviewed previous studies on EEG NF training for working memory performance improvement. It started with the principle and mechanism of NF training and the introduction of the current research progress. Then the article reviewed the experimental results using different NF training protocols including theta enhancement NF, alpha enhancement NF, SMR enhancement NF, beta enhancement NF, gamma enhancement NF and two frequency bands NF protocols. We found that alpha, SMR and theta enhancement NF have shown the benefits on working memory enhancement in most studies. However, a few studies have reported inconsistent results, including the failure to adjust the training EEG feature (i.e. the non-learner problem) and no significant enhancement in working memory compared to the control group. Future research can be conducted from following three aspects. First, the neural mechanism of EEG NF training effects on working memory has not been clear yet. Previous work only examined the EEG activity during NF training and resting periods. Whether and how NF training influences the brain activity in working memory task and results in working memory performance change remains unknown yet. Future work can utilize a variety of imaging methods such as EEG, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) to examine the brain activities during NF training, during resting state and during working memory task. Second, the non-learner problem has been reported in a number of studies. Although a few studies have identified some physiological and psychological predictors for non-learners in some NF protocols, the findings cannot be generalized due to the complexity of EEG activity, the variety of participants’ population and inconsistent experimental design. Future work is suggested to utilize machine learning methods to identify the predictors of non-learners in different NF training protocols in order to understand the reason of non-learner problem, and save time and effort on non-learners. Finally, the optimization of training parameters including training schedule and feedback interface, the adoption of randomized double-blind sham-controlled experimental design, clear reporting the experimental methods and results are desired in future NF studies. This review is expected to provide reference and pave the way for future research. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Network of Symptoms for Internet Gaming Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression: Examining Gender Differences Wang Zihao, Yang Haibo Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 999-1007.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.202304029 Abstract （1050）      PDF（pc） （1972KB）（1095）       Knowledge map    Save It is known that college students' Internet Gaming Disorder is closely related to their anxiety and depression. Previous studies showed that Internet Gaming Disorder has six symptoms, and anxiety and depression also have seven symptoms. However, it is not clear whether these symptoms are related to each other, and whether gender may impact the above relations. This study uses a self-reported questionnaire to investigate the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, and depression in college students. In the form of the Internet, 916 college students (47.16%males; Mage=19.57 years old, SD = 1.07 years old) were recruited from four universities in Henan, Shandong, Tianjin, and Guangdong provinces. The instruments were the Chinese version of the 7-item game addiction scale (GAS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21). Participants reported their level of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. All measures were carried out anonymously and approved by school administrators. Data were analyzed in SPSS 21.0, Mplus 8.3, and JASP 0.14.1.0. The Latent class analysis was used to identify the risk groups of Internet Gaming Disorder, and the network analysis was used to explore the relations among symptoms. We found that there is a significant positive correlation between Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression, and there is a complex symptom relationship. In the symptom network of Internet Gaming Disorder, the core symptom of addiction behavior is salience, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. In the comparison of different genders, we found that the core symptom of male students was mood modification, and the correlation between salience and tolerance was the strongest, while that of females was salience, and the correlation between salience and withdrawal was the strongest. In the symptomatic comorbid network of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression, the core symptom of both males and females is panic, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. This study explored the relation between College Students' Internet Gaming Disorde, anxiety, depression, and suggested the important role of salience and panic in these three mental disorders. These findings expand our understanding of the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression. Intervention on salience and panic may help to treat Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Cognitive Bias toward Body-Related Information of Different Emotional Valence among Females with Fat Negative Physical Self: An Event-Related Potential Study Yao Jiayi, Leng Xuechen, Feng Chengzhi, Feng Wenfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (5): 1026-1035.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230501 Abstract （1043）      PDF（pc） （1401KB）（856）       Knowledge map    Save Considering the prevalence and serious consequences of weight dissatisfaction, investigation of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of weight dissatisfaction seems to have important social implications. According to Vitousek and Hollon's (1990) cognitive theory of eating disorders, stereotyped, emotional, and exaggerated evaluations of weight-related information lead to maladaptive schemas related to body shape, weight, and the self. People with maladaptive schemas show an enhancement in attention and memory for schema-consistent information (e.g., fat stimuli) and selectively resist schema-inconsistent information (e.g., thin stimuli). At present, although previous studies have confirmed that people with fat negative body self show cognitive bias toward body-related information, there is still a lack of empirical research on the processing characteristics and neural mechanism toward body-related information of different emotional valence. In this experiment, participants were assigned to an experimental group with high weight dissatisfaction (HWD) and a control group with low weight dissatisfaction (LWD) according to the scores on the Negative Physical Self Scale-Fatness. The final sample included 40 female college students. We employed a modified 1-back task and recorded ERPs time-locked to visually present body-related words, including negative fat words, positive fat words, negative thin words, and positive thin words. The participants were requested to judge whether the current word was the same as the last one. Compared with the passive viewing and dot-probe paradigm, the 1-back task required participants to pay attention to each word, and after reducing the continuous repetition probability of the word, more analyzable trials could be reserved, and the fatigue effect of the participants could be alleviated to some extent. The behavioral results showed that the average accuracy for each group in the current study was over 95%, indicating that participants could complete the task efficiently. There was no significant difference in response time between the HWD and LWD groups. The ERP results showed that body-related words did not elicit larger anterior N1 and N170 amplitudes in the HWD group than in the LWD group, showing that there was no negative cognitive bias toward fatness-related information in the early ERP components related to attentional processing and cognitive resource investment among females with HWD. Besides, in both the HWD group and LWD group, body-related words induced larger P2 and LPP amplitudes and smaller N300 amplitudes than did non-body-related neutral words, additionally, positive thin words and negative thin words induced larger LPP amplitudes than did positive fat words and negative fat words. Since there were significant differences in LPP amplitude induced by different body-related words, the average LPP amplitudes were analyzed by four-factor ANOVA to further distinguish the processing differences between body shape dimensions (fat and thin) and emotional valence (positive and negative). The results showed that cognitive bias toward body-related words was dominated by body dimensions rather than emotional valence in the late processing stage, and the LPP amplitude induced by thinness-related words was significantly higher than that induced by fatness-related words. In conclusion, the present study partially validates the cognitive-behavioral theory. Specifically, in the early processing stage, females could distinguish between body-related and non-body-related information, both fatness-related and thinness-related information were emotionally salient, and under the influence of task demand, the processing of body-related information was suppressed subsequently. In the late processing stage, females invested more cognitive resources toward thinness-related information and maintained more attention to thinness-related information. And the most important finding was that the females' cognitive bias toward body-related information in late processing was dominated by body shape rather than emotional valence. These findings reveal the mechanism of cognitive bias toward body-related information among females with fat negative body self and contribute to the model of the cognitive-behavioral theory of body image disturbance, which may help enhance prevention and interventions for reducing weight dissatisfaction. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）