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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （1964）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（1921）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （1802）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（2187）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Early Adolescents’ Smartphone Addiction Severity: The Mediating Roles of General and Social Anxiety and the Moderating Role of Family Socioeconomic Status Zhou Nan, Zang Ning, Wang Shaofan, Li Zixuan, Chen Ling, Li Beilei, Cao Hongjian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 325-333.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240209 Abstract （1447）      PDF（pc） （1218KB）（1713）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to the developmental sequela of early maltreatment experiences, including addictive behaviors. Emotional abuse and neglect are particularly influential in shaping children’s later socioemotional functioning because, compared to the other types of early maltreatment, they are more pervasive and their consequences are often not immediately observable. Notably, research on the link between emotional maltreatment and early adolescents’ addictive behaviors is limited in its primary focus on the direct associations, leaving the underlying mechanisms underexamined, and in its lack of differentiation between emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Based on the addiction compensation theory, this study sought to examine the links between early emotional abuse and emotional neglect and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction severity using data from a sample of 844, 7th graders from H province, China. This study also tested the mediating roles of general and social anxiety given that they may exhibit differential roles in explaining how early emotional maltreatment may elevate the risk of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may contribute to the formation of individuals’ shame-based cognitive-emotional scheme, which results in individuals’ habitual hiding from others and ultimately leads to social anxiety. Further, family socioeconomic status (SES) may also factor into the associations among early emotional abuse and emotional neglect, general and social anxiety, and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. On the one hand, early adolescents from low SES families have limited resources that are unfavorable for development and thus the negative impact of early emotional abuse and neglect, such as anxious symptoms, would be stronger than those from high SES families. On the other hand, the lack of social support in family settings with low SES also may diminish adolescents’ resilience to cope with the consequences of early emotional maltreatment. Thus, the moderating role of family SES was examined in this study. The present path models revealed that early adolescents’ social anxiety only mediated the positive associations between early emotional abuse and their smartphone addiction severity. Moreover, the mediating effect of social anxiety was only present in early adolescents from families with high SES. These results delineated how early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may uniquely relate to early adolescents’ smartphone addiction via their associations with general and social anxiety. The incorporation of social anxiety beyond the general anxiety highlighted the importance of differentiating the two types of anxiety as well as documenting their respective roles. Further, the results also point to the necessity of moving beyond the average population to further explore the potential heterogeneity in the currently examined associations across different subgroups. The findings provide insights for future trauma-informed interventions that aim to reduce the incidence of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, for early adolescents with early emotional abuse and neglect experiences, practitioners should attend to their potential anxious symptoms. Moreover, for early adolescents from high SES families carrying the burdens of early emotional maltreatment, special attention is needed because of their potential social anxiety issues. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Explore the longitudinal relation:Longitudinal models based on the cross-lagged structure Fang Junyan , Wen Zhonglin , Huang Guomin Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 734-741.   Abstract （1308）      PDF（pc） （1226KB）（1099）       Knowledge map    Save A cross-lagged structure usually consists of two kinds of effects, autoregressive effects of the prior level of a variable on the current level of itself and cross-lagged effects of the prior level of one variable on the current level of another variable. Longitudinal models with the cross-lagged structure are well recognized as powerful techniques for revealing longitudinal relations between two variables and laying the foundation of diachronic causation. There exist several cross-lagged longitudinal models, while practitioners know little about the association and difference among them, which makes it difficult to choose the most proper one. Although these models are similar in structure, they may differ in the results of estimation. Thus, it is necessary to get a whole picture of these longitudinal models and learn how to compare and choose among them. The present study aims to analyze different cross-lagged longitudinal models and compare them, so as to reveal the importance of model comparison and model selection and provide strategies to select among models. First, we introduce four popular longitudinal models with cross-lagged structure: Cross-Lagged Panel Model (CLPM), Random-Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM), Latent Curve Model with Structured Residuals (LCM-SR), and Latent Change Score Model (LCS). Then, we clarify the similarities and associations among them. Next, we discuss their differences in various aspects. Finally, we conduct an empirical study to illustrate the procedure of model selection. Results show that: (1) these models are very similar in the model configuration because they all analyze diachronic relations by the cross-lagged structure; (2) CLPM can transform into RI-CLPM, LCM-SR and LCS under certain conditions; (3) different models focus on different developmental characteristics and each of them can provide valuable information on the change process; (4) these models could give different estimation results when applied to the same data set, which may induce different conclusions. We summarize several reference points for selecting a proper longitudinal model in practice: (1) research purpose. If researchers are interested in characterizing the development trajectories, then LCM or LCM-SR is preferred; (2) theoretical knowledge and empirical experience. If there is sufficient evidence showing that the within-person process should be separated from between-person difference, then LCM-SR and RI-CLPM could be considered; (3) the model fitting. Several model fit indices can be used. In summary, longitudinal models with cross-lagged structure play an important role in revealing longitudinal relations between psychological constructs. These models are similar in configuration but vary in modeling basis, premises and data requirements, which may give rise to distinct estimation results and conclusions. Researchers should understand the association and differences among them with considerable insight into model comparison and model selection. It is advisable to try different reasonable models and choose the most proper one for the exploration of longitudinal relations. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Is Marriage the Tomb of Happiness? ——Evidence from CFPS Tracking Data Based on a PSM-DID Approach Deng Xiaohui, Xiang Yanhui Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 635-643.   Abstract （1302）      PDF（pc） （1364KB）（1072）       Knowledge map    Save The relationship between marriage and happiness has always been concerned by the public as well as researchers. Some studies found that marriage could decrease individual happiness, the others revealed that marriage could increase individual happiness. So no clear conclusion has been reached at present. Previous studies mostly used cross-section data, so this study aimed at using the tracking data of China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) to explore the influence of individual marital status change on happiness. To control the influence of other confounding factors, the methods of Differences-in-Differences (DID) and Propensity Score Matchings (PSM) were adopted in this study. In real life, whether an individual marries or not is not at random, because it may be affected by other covariable factors, such as income, education level, and region. The idea of PSM matching is to convert multiple covariables that need to be matched into an index—propensity score, namely the probability that an individual becomes an experimental group, which in this study is the probability that the marital status changes from unmarried to married. Then, the control group and the experimental group were matched according to different matching methods (such as one-to-one matching, nearest-neighbor matching, K-nearest neighbor matching, kernel-matching, radius matching, etc.). After that, the difference in happiness between the experimental group and the control group was compared by the method of DID, and the pure effect of the experimental treatment (from unmarried to married) was obtained, to reach a conclusion. This study adopted PSM-DID, which not only avoided self-selection bias by means of PSM, but also solved the problems of missing variables and time effect using DID. Besides, it could also answer more scientifically and reasonably whether marriage may lead to the improvement of happiness. The result showed that: (1) the marital status transition (from unmarried to married) could improve individual happiness significantly, which is moderated by gender. To be more specific, happiness increased more in men than women if changing from unmarried to married, of which the explanation mechanism may be related to the health and economic problems brought by marriage. Besides, intimate relationshihp could make people feel more supportive and help improve the physical and mental health, thus affecting individual happiness, which may be moderated by the quality of marriage. What’s more, marriage may also bring more economic benefits for married men than for unmarried men, such as higher wages, and this economic well-being may also contribute to higher happiness to some extent; (2) Increased happiness of men is significantly higher than that of women, the reason may be related to the traditional marriage culture of China and the division of labor between men and women in family structure, which may be the important reasons why change of happiness in marriage is significantly higher in men than in women. According to the traditional view of marriage, men are symbol of power and dominate the family, which could make them be more satisfied about present life after marriage. Therefore, based on the tracking samples in big data for the first time, this study answered the influence of marriage in enhancing happiness, as well as the moderating effect of gender in the relationship between marriage and happiness. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Chinese Thinking Style and Mental Health: The Role of Mental Resilience and Self-Esteem Huang Lianqiong, Luo Xi, Hou Yubo Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 458-466.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240224 Abstract （1297）      PDF（pc） （1319KB）（1632）       Knowledge map    Save Extensive empirical studies have revealed the significant impact of mental health on individual psychosocial adaptation. However, with the acceleration of the pace of life and the intensification of competition, Chinese people are confronted with a sharp increase in the pressure from different aspects, followed by mental health problems that are increasingly prominent. According to the Blue Book of Mental Health: Report on National Mental Health Development in China (2019~2020), Chinese people scored significantly lower in emotional experience, self-knowledge, interpersonal communication, and adaptability in 2020 than in 2008. Therefore, it has become an urgent obligation for psychological researchers to deeply explore the factors affecting mental health and to put forward suggestions to meet people's needs for mental health services. Previous studies have pointed out that culture is an organic factor that constitutes mental health problems, and it is necessary to make efforts from the perspective of Chinese culture in order to solve Chinese mental health problems effectively. In view of this, the present study surmises that the Chinese thinking style, which reflects the characteristics of national culture, may be an important factor affecting mental health. The purpose of this study was to examine how the Chinese thinking style, which is influenced by eastern culture, affects individuals’ mental health, as well as the role of mental resilience and self-esteem. In the present study, participants were recruited to participate in the online questionnaire survey through the online platform Questionnaire Star. The data were collected in two waves. Participants completed the Chinese Holistic Thinking Style Scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and the demographic questions at time 1. After an interval of one week (time 2), they completed the Mental Resilience Scale and the General Health Questionnaire. Totally 630 valid questionnaires were collected. The results indicated that (1) the connectedness dimension of Chinese thinking style significantly positively predicted mental health, while the contradiction dimension significantly negatively predicted mental health. (2) Mental resilience partially mediated the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health. (3) Self-esteem not only played a significant moderating role in the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health, but also moderated the relationship between thinking style and mental resilience, as well as between mental resilience and mental health. That is, self-esteem played a core role in the present model. These findings not only revealed the significance of Chinese thinking style in affecting the level of mental health but also showed the underlying mechanism of Chinese thinking style on mental health, especially the core role of self-esteem in the model. The results of this study enlighten us that enhancing mental resilience by training and strengthening people's holistic thinking style will contribute to improving their mental health status. Future researchers should further explore the positive influence of thinking style training on mental health. In addition, self-esteem exerts great influence upon Chinese psychosocial adaptation and behaviors, thus it is necessary to pay sufficient attention to the cultivation of Chinese people’s self-esteem in the future. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （1275）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（2159）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Parental Responses to Negative Emotions and the Potential Risk of Personality Disorder in Adolescence Wenjuan Zhang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 586-593.   Abstract （1268）      PDF（pc） （868KB）（1359）       Knowledge map    Save For a long time, clinicians and researchers have opposed giving children and adolescents a personality disorder diagnosis. However, a burgeoning number of empirical evidence made it clear that personality disorders occurred in childhood and adolescence. There are a large body of research supporting the important role of family influences on the development of particular type of personality disorder, especially the relationships between family emotional environment and borderline personality disorders. But it is inappropriate to evaluate adolescents’ personality from the perspective of categorical model of personality disorders, which may increase the stigmatization and impede the development of personality. Dimensional perspective of personality disorders in DSM-5 Section III (Negative Affectivity, Detachment, Antagonism, Disinhibition, and Psychoticism) is considered a better approach to define personality disorders in childhood and adolescence. Because it helps us understand adolescents’ maladaptive personality traits from a developmental psychopathology perspective and connects personality development during childhood and adolescence with adult personality disorders, other than labeling them personality disorder categories. Thus, the present study seeks to evaluate adolescents’ pathological personality traits from the perspective of dimensional model of personality disorders. We aimed to explore the profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits and its associations with parents' responses to negative emotions. First, we identified maladaptive personality profiles of adolescents based on 25 pathological personality traits in the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5). Then we further tested the group differences of parental responses to negative emotions on adolescents’ maladaptive personality profiles. Last, we examined the interactions between parental non-supportive and supportive reactions to negative emotions on the development of adolescents’ pathological personality traits. The study was conducted in six middle schools in mainland China. Seven hundred and one adolescents were recruited in this sample. Due to a large number of missing data (> 10%) or suspected random responding, 59 participants were excluded from analyses. The final sample (642 adolescents) comprised the following distribution: 53.6% male, 46.4% female; grade 7 (41%), grade 8 (46%), and grade 10 (13%). The school principals and head teachers coordinated the assessment procedure. All the participants were informed that participation in this study was voluntary and their answers were confidential. Researchers went to each classroom to make the instructions consistent and clear. The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 and Parental Responses to Adolescents’ Negative Emotions Scale were conducted by paper and pencil during regular daily classes in each classroom with 40-60 students. It took about 35-50 minutes to finish the whole questionnaires. We provided free lectures about personality development in adolescence as a reward. The results demonstrated that: (1) three profiles of adolescents’ pathological personality traits were identified: low-risk (25%; low scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits), median-risk (49.1%; median scores across the 23 low-order pathological traits, with the exception of Impulsivity and Rigid Perfectionism), and high-risk (24.9%; high scores across the 25 low-order pathological traits). (2) Adolescents in the three personality disorder risk profiles demonstrated significantly different on all the parental reactions to negative emotions. Specifically, parental warmth/responsiveness and punishment to negative emotions showed significantly different across the three profiles. However, parental expressive encouragement showed non-significant between low-risk and median-risk profiles, whereas parental minimization showed non-significant between median-risk and high-risk profiles. (3) The moderating effect of parental supportive reactions on the relationship between parental non-supportive reactions and adolescents’ pathological personality traits was significant. When parents' supportive response modes were relatively high, the negative path effects were weakened. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impact and Intervention of the Approach-Avoidance Tendencies on the Ensemble Coding of Emotional Facial Expressions in a Crowd Lai Tingting, Zhu Wujing, Lin Zengzhen, Wang Xiaoqin, Jia Lei Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1026-1035.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240501 Abstract （1243）      PDF（pc） （1216KB）（1552）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies have investigated the approach-avoidance response to emotional faces and the processing characteristics of facial emotional ensemble coding as separate entities. However, there is a lack of research that has integrated these two aspects to explore the potential influence of approach-avoidance tendencies, induced by the same set of emotional facial expressions on facial expression ensemble encoding. To address this research gap, we conducted two logically progressive experiments by combining the classic approach-avoidance task with the emotional facial expression ensemble task. The goal was to investigate the potential impact of emotional approach-avoidance tendencies on the ensemble coding of facial emotions. Furthermore, we aimed to explore whether the motivational dimensions of emotional stimuli modulate the ensemble coding of facial emotions from the perspective of motivational orientation theory. The experiment was programmed using Presentation software (Neurobehavioral Systems Inc.) and presented on a 21-inch Dell monitor. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (emotional valence: positive vs negative) × 2 (motivational orientation: approach vs. avoidance) within-subjects design. The dependent variable was the mean error value of face emotion ensemble coding ($\mathrm{ME}=\frac{\sum \text { |test-mean }}{n}$). The positive or negative faces were presented in two ways: approaching and withdrawing. Participants were instructed to perceive the mean emotion of the group faces. They were then asked to use the mouse wheel to adjust the emotion of the test face to match the mean emotion of the group faces. Experiment 2 was simplified based on the results of Experiment 1. The positive faces from the ensemble coding task in Experiment 1 were discarded. A 2 (group: experimental group vs. control group) × 2 (motivational orientation: approach vs. avoidance) two-factor mixed design was used in Experiment 2. This experiment consisted of four phases: an emotional state pre-test, a sentence arrangement task, an emotional state post-test, and a group face ensemble coding task. The “experimental group-control group” design was adopted, and different sentence arrangement tasks were set up before the face emotion ensemble coding task. This was done to test whether implicit emotion regulation strategies could reduce the influence of negative avoidance tendencies on face emotion ensemble coding. The results of Experiment 1 revealed a significant interaction between emotional valence and motivational orientation in the face emotional ensemble coding task (p < .05). Further analysis showed that the error in coding negative faces in the approach condition was significantly higher than in the avoidance condition. Additionally, the average error in ensemble coding for negative faces in the avoidance condition was significantly lower than for positive faces. In Experiment 2, the results showed a significant interaction between group and motivational orientation (p < .01). The simple effect analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean error between the approach and avoidance conditions in the experimental group. However, in the control group, the mean error in the approach condition was significantly higher than in the avoidance condition, which was consistent with the findings in Experiment 1. Moreover, the mean error in approach conditions in the control group was significantly higher than that in the experimental group. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that emotional avoidance tendency has an impact on face emotion ensemble coding, while a cognitive reappraisal strategy can eliminate this effect. It supports the motivational orientation theory and challenges the event coding theory. Furthermore, it highlights the significant influence of the motivational dimension of emotional stimuli on emotion perception. The key conclusions are as follows: (1) Negative avoidance tendencies can affect the ensemble coding of emotional faces and induce perceptual biases. (2) Implicit cognitive reappraisal can reduce negative avoidance tendency and regulate its influence on the ensemble coding of emotional faces. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impact of Mental Imagery on Fear and its Neural Mechanisms Jin Yumeng, Wang Yizhen, Zhang Jie, Wang Jinxia, Dou Haoran, Zhang Huoyin, Lei Yi Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (6): 1282-1292.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240601 Abstract （1228）      PDF（pc） （370KB）（1289）       Knowledge map    Save Anxiety is a prevalent emotional disorder that can be divided into several subtypes, including generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder, all of which are characterized by fear as the primary emotional component. Mental imagery, a complex cognitive phenomenon, is characterized by the generation of sensory representations in the absence of direct sensory input, and is particularly relevant to the study of visual perception and its associated neural correlates. The current review examines the role of visual mental imagery in the context of fear and anxiety, its neural underpinnings, and potential therapeutic applications. The discussion of the relation between mental imagery and fear begins by examining the impact of mental imagery on fear with respect to its defining attributes, neural substrates, and the temporal course of its manifestation. Research has revealed that mental imagery, serving as a "simulation" akin to actual visual perception, engages a multitude of brain regions that are identical to those activated during genuine sensory experiences. Consequently, this mental simulation exerts equivalent effects on the induction and modulation of fear responses. The neural underpinnings of this phenomenon implicate a complex interplay between the sensory cortices. Visual mental imagery is known to engage the primary visual cortex (V1, V2, and V3), with a robust body of neuroimaging research highlighting the similarities in neural activation patterns between actual visual perception and mental imagery. The vividness and modifiability of mental imagery are critical in shaping emotional responses, particularly fear, which is a cardinal feature of various anxiety disorders. Individuals with anxiety-related conditions may exhibit exaggerated fear responses to innocuous stimuli due to the involuntary generation of threatening mental images that are closely linked to their core fears and can provoke both physiological and emotional responses. The neural substrates of mental imagery have been extensively investigated, with studies demonstrating that the primary visual cortex is involved in processing both actual visual stimuli and mental imagery. The cortical surface area of V1 has been found to be negatively correlated with the intensity of mental imagery, suggesting a role in the modulation of imagery vividness. The temporal dynamics of mental imagery have been studied using event-related potentials (ERPs), revealing early neural activities associated with face recognition, such as the N170 component, which occurs around 170ms post-stimulus onset. The integration of top-down imagery signals with bottom-up perceptual signals is reflected in the P2 component (200ms-260ms). Furthermore, the early posterior negativity (EPN) and late positive potential (LPP) components have been implicated in the emotional response associated with mental imagery, with enhanced activity observed during the processing of negative mental imagery. Additionally, the recruitment of other brain regions, such as the hippocampus and amygdala, during mental imagery processing points to a distributed neural network underlying the generation of imagery related to fear. Mental imagery has been shown to influence the acquisition, generalization, and extinction of conditioned fear responses. Fear conditioning, a well-established paradigm in the study of fear and anxiety, involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus (CS) with an aversive stimulus (US), leading to the development of a conditioned response (CR) to the CS in the absence of the US. Research has indicated that mental imagery can facilitate the acquisition of fear, with the imagined presence of a threat capable of eliciting a fear response similar to that provoked by actual perception. Moreover, fear acquired through perception can generalize to mental imagery, thereby perpetuating the cycle of fear in individuals with anxiety-related disorders. Subsequently, clinical interventions utilizing mental imagery, such as imaginal exposure and imagery rescripting, have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders. Imaginal exposure involves the repetitive presentation of fear-related mental images to attenuate the distress associated with fear memories. Imagery rescripting allows individuals to alter the narrative of traumatic memories by envisioning a new, safer outcome, thereby modifying the emotional significance of the memory. Both approaches have shown promise in reducing fear and improving symptoms associated with anxiety-related disorders. Finally, acknowledging the limitations of current research within the conditioned fear paradigm, the discussion shifts towards the potential for future studies to further explore the neural mechanisms and clinical interventions related to fear learning from the perspective of mental imagery. This approach could provide novel insights into the intricate interplay between mental imagery and fear, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and neural processes that underlie fear conditioning and its modulation. By leveraging the unique advantages of mental imagery as a research tool, future studies can contribute to the development of more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of fear-related disorders, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of clinical interventions and improving patient outcomes. In conclusion, mental imagery represents an important avenue for understanding and treating anxiety-related psychological conditions. The vividness and malleability of mental imagery, its neural correlates, and its impact on fear learning and extinction offer valuable insights for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. Future research endeavors should focus on delineating the neural mechanisms underlying mental imagery in the context of fear generalization and extinction, investigating the effects of vivid mental imagery on fear, and examining the differential neural activation patterns between individuals with anxiety-related disorders and healthy controls during the processing of fear-related mental imagery. These investigations have the potential to enhance our understanding of the role of mental imagery in fear and anxiety, thereby informing the development of more effective treatment strategies. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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EEG Neurofeedback for Working Memory Enhancement: A Literature Review Zhou Wenbin, Nan Wenya, Fu Yunfa Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 514-521.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240301 Abstract （1227）      PDF（pc） （627KB）（1276）       Knowledge map    Save Working memory refers to the ability to maintain and manipulate information over a period of seconds. In daily life, many complex cognitive activities such as learning and decision-making need the participation of working memory. Whether working memory performance can be improved by certain ways of training has been a hot research topic. Neurofeedback (NF) is a type of biofeedback that uses the principle of operational conditioning to enable individuals to learn regulating their own brain activity. During electroencephalogram (EEG) NF training, the EEG signals are recorded from single or multiple electrodes attached on the scalp and relevant features are extracted and presented to the training individuals in real time by visual, auditory, or combined visual-auditory forms. Thus, participants can be aware of their brain state in real time. When their brain activity meets some predefined rewarded criteria, they will be rewarded by the feedback interface that presents real time feedback feature, such as increasing the sphere size in visual feedback, music quality in auditory feedback, etc. With NF training practice, they will learn how to adjust their brain activities that underlie a specific behavior or pathology. A large amount of studies have shown that NF training can improve cognitive ability and behavioral performance in both clinical patients and healthy population. Regarding the NF training effectiveness for working memory enhancement, the existing research conclusions are not consistent due to the variations of the experimental design, training protocol, participants’ population, and sample size in the literature. Therefore, this study systematically reviewed previous studies on EEG NF training for working memory performance improvement. It started with the principle and mechanism of NF training and the introduction of the current research progress. Then the article reviewed the experimental results using different NF training protocols including theta enhancement NF, alpha enhancement NF, SMR enhancement NF, beta enhancement NF, gamma enhancement NF and two frequency bands NF protocols. We found that alpha, SMR and theta enhancement NF have shown the benefits on working memory enhancement in most studies. However, a few studies have reported inconsistent results, including the failure to adjust the training EEG feature (i.e. the non-learner problem) and no significant enhancement in working memory compared to the control group. Future research can be conducted from following three aspects. First, the neural mechanism of EEG NF training effects on working memory has not been clear yet. Previous work only examined the EEG activity during NF training and resting periods. Whether and how NF training influences the brain activity in working memory task and results in working memory performance change remains unknown yet. Future work can utilize a variety of imaging methods such as EEG, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) to examine the brain activities during NF training, during resting state and during working memory task. Second, the non-learner problem has been reported in a number of studies. Although a few studies have identified some physiological and psychological predictors for non-learners in some NF protocols, the findings cannot be generalized due to the complexity of EEG activity, the variety of participants’ population and inconsistent experimental design. Future work is suggested to utilize machine learning methods to identify the predictors of non-learners in different NF training protocols in order to understand the reason of non-learner problem, and save time and effort on non-learners. Finally, the optimization of training parameters including training schedule and feedback interface, the adoption of randomized double-blind sham-controlled experimental design, clear reporting the experimental methods and results are desired in future NF studies. This review is expected to provide reference and pave the way for future research. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Network of Symptoms for Internet Gaming Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression: Examining Gender Differences Wang Zihao, Yang Haibo Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 999-1007.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.202304029 Abstract （1226）      PDF（pc） （1972KB）（1207）       Knowledge map    Save It is known that college students' Internet Gaming Disorder is closely related to their anxiety and depression. Previous studies showed that Internet Gaming Disorder has six symptoms, and anxiety and depression also have seven symptoms. However, it is not clear whether these symptoms are related to each other, and whether gender may impact the above relations. This study uses a self-reported questionnaire to investigate the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, and depression in college students. In the form of the Internet, 916 college students (47.16%males; Mage=19.57 years old, SD = 1.07 years old) were recruited from four universities in Henan, Shandong, Tianjin, and Guangdong provinces. The instruments were the Chinese version of the 7-item game addiction scale (GAS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21). Participants reported their level of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. All measures were carried out anonymously and approved by school administrators. Data were analyzed in SPSS 21.0, Mplus 8.3, and JASP 0.14.1.0. The Latent class analysis was used to identify the risk groups of Internet Gaming Disorder, and the network analysis was used to explore the relations among symptoms. We found that there is a significant positive correlation between Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression, and there is a complex symptom relationship. In the symptom network of Internet Gaming Disorder, the core symptom of addiction behavior is salience, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. In the comparison of different genders, we found that the core symptom of male students was mood modification, and the correlation between salience and tolerance was the strongest, while that of females was salience, and the correlation between salience and withdrawal was the strongest. In the symptomatic comorbid network of Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression, the core symptom of both males and females is panic, and the correlation between salience and tolerance is the strongest. This study explored the relation between College Students' Internet Gaming Disorde, anxiety, depression, and suggested the important role of salience and panic in these three mental disorders. These findings expand our understanding of the relations among Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety, depression. Intervention on salience and panic may help to treat Internet Gaming Disorder, anxiety and depression. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Preview on Contextual Predictability Effects during Reading Zhao Sainan, Li Lin, Zhang Lijuan, Wang Jingxin Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (4): 770-778.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230401 Abstract （1207）      PDF（pc） （1514KB）（1200）       Knowledge map    Save Most previous research have found contextual predictability effects eliminated in invalid preview which indicates contextual predictability effects depend on valid preview (like normal reading). The researchers manipulated invalid preview conditions by presenting various kinds of words or nonwords that were different from target words in parafoveal vision. It has been well established that invalid preview can cause various costs that may overwrite the contextual predictability effects. However, it is still hard to tell which is the cause of the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid preview conditions: the cost caused by invalid preview, or the absence of valid preview. Solving this problem is crucial to understand how the top-bottom predictability is influenced by bottom-top preview information. The present research investigated this effect with incremental paradigm by manipulating parafovea without preview information. EyeLink 1000 Plus eye-tracker recorded participants' (40 participants in experiment 1 and 44 participants in experiment 2) right-eye gaze when they read the sentences that contained target words. Sentences were displayed in Song font in black-on-gray text on a 24-inch ASUS LCD monitor (1920×1080 pixels) with each character subtended approximately 0.9 degrees of visual angle. Experiment 1 was a 2(contextual predictability: high, low)×2(preview type: normal, none)within subjects design. Stimuli were 164 sets of Chinese sentences containing two interchangeable target words that were of either high or low contextual predictability. There was no preview information before directly fixed word in none preview condition, which was different from normal reading pattern and may influence the results. The aim of experiment 2 was to further verify and extend the findings from experiment 1 in a more normal reading form. In order to create a normal reading pattern with minimal interference for vocabulary processing, experiment 2 used meaningless and simple ※ as invalid preview. It was a 2 (contextual predictability: high, low) × 2(preview type: normal, ※) within subjects design. The results showed clear effects of preview type in both experiments with shorter reading times and word skipping rate for normal preview condition, in line with findings from previous studies. It also replicated robust and reliable contextual predictability effects on eye movement time measures (first fixation duration, gaze duration, total reading time) in both experiment 1 and experiment 2, which were contributed to longer fixation durations for high predictability words than low predictability words. More importantly, the current results showed no interaction between contextual predictability and preview types on any measures in both experiment 1 and experiment 2. It suggested that the contextual predictability effects with none preview and ※ preview were similar to normal preview. The results of Bayes analyses also provided strong evidence for the additive models. The key point of present study is the interaction between contextual predictability and preview type. The robust addictive effects suggest the elimination of contextual predictability effects in invalid previews is not due to the lack of valid preview but the overwrite of the invalid preview costs. Therefore, this research indicates contextual predictability influences word processing independently rather than depending on the valid preview information. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Temporal Emotion Asymmetry and its Relationship with Moral Judgment and Value Evaluation Xie Ruyue, Jin Lei, Hao Haiping, Du Gang, Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 530-537.   Abstract （1183）      PDF（pc） （327KB）（1158）       Knowledge map    Save Abstract: Mental time travel refers to the faculty that allows humans to mentally project themselves backward in time to relive or forward to pre-live events. Mentally reliving past events is also known as episodic memory in the literature. Mentally reliving future events is also known as episodic future thinking. Previous studies have found that past and future mental time travels share phenomenological characteristics and activate similar brain parts. Other studies have found differences between them, with individuals leaning more towards the future. Of particular relevance to the phenomenon of future bias are studies that have examined temporal emotion asymmetry. Temporal emotion asymmetry refers to people experiencing greater affect when thinking about the future than the affect they experience when thinking about the past. This is true for both positively and negatively valenced events. Emotion differences between past and future thinking are robust and emerge early in development. Previous studies found that temporal emotion asymmetry appears to be present in children from at least 6 years onward, and once established the size of the temporal emotion asymmetry effect did not vary by age or scenario. This article explains the temporal emotion asymmetry from the perspectives of mental simulation and psychological distance. First, the difference between future and past mental simulation may be an important factor affecting the temporal emotions asymmetry. Mental simulation refers to how an individual projects himself onto different events, spaces, or hypothetical reality, a human-specific ability. Compared to simulating past events, people who simulate future events are typically based primarily on focal aspects of events to the neglect of more peripheral event features or aspects of the event context that might moderate affective impact, and this can systematically lead to overestimations of the affective impact of events in the future. Second, one reason people are more emotionally oriented to the future is that the future is psychologically closer to the past. The reduction of psychological distance leads to an increase in the intensity of emotional experience. TEA can influence temporal value asymmetry and temporal asymmetries in moral judgment. (1) Temporal value asymmetry refers to people’s tendency to value future experiences more than equivalent experiences in the equidistant past. For example, Individuals believe they should be paid more for doing the same job a month later than when they did a job a month ago. The reason why they make these asymmetrical valuations is that contemplating future events produces greater affect than does contemplate past events. (2) Logically, an unethical behavior performed yesterday should also be unethical if performed tomorrow. However, previous studies suggest that the timing of a transgression has a systematic effect on people’s beliefs about its moral acceptability. Future transgressions are judged to be more deliberate, less moral, and more worthy of punishment than equivalent transgressions in the past (we will label these temporal asymmetries in moral judgment). Because people’s emotional reactions tend to be more extreme for future events than for past events, such emotional reactions often guide moral intuitions, and judgments of moral behavior may be more extreme in prospect than in retrospect. Future research directions include (1) Temporal emotion asymmetry under different temporal orientations. Temporal orientation, also known as temporal focus, refers to the degree to which people pay attention to the past, present, and future, as well as the tendency to produce emotional and behavioral responses to these time zones; (2) Considering the temporal emotion asymmetry of depressed groups; (3) Exploring the differences in temporal emotion asymmetry from different perspectives. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Aggression and Malevolent Creativity: A Moderated Mediation Model Wu Jiaqi, Ren Xiao, Gong Zhe Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 367-374.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240214 Abstract （1179）      PDF（pc） （876KB）（1272）       Knowledge map    Save Creativity, involving individual ability improvement, social development, and national core competitiveness, has drawn a lot of attention in the social sciences. Creativity could have a dark side in its nature, which is termed as malevolent creativity. Malevolent creativity is the application of creativity to intentionally generate products that do harm to others and society. Prior studies have investigated a significant positive correlation between aggression and malevolent creativity. The present study has taken two theoretical perspectives by adopting the General Aggression Model (GAM) and four stages of creative thought. According to the GAM, aggression may increase the risk of malevolent by increasing anger rumination. Anger rumination may play a role of reappraisal in GAM. That is, aggression can lead to anger rumination, which in turn will predict malevolent creativity. From the perspective of four stages of creative thought, anger rumination is similar to the preparation period, analyzing and reflecting on the object of attack or the angry event, in an attempt to solve the problem by means of malevolent creativity. Furthermore, individual differences in effortful control (EC) may moderate this mediation process, in which high EC individuals may be more vulnerable to anger rumination than low EC individuals. In sum, we proposed a moderated mediation model to account for malevolent creativity. Specifically, we test the relationship between aggression and malevolent creativity, the mediating effect of anger rumination, and the moderating effect of EC, in a sample of college students. Participants of this study were 428 college students (Mage = 19.44 years, SD = 1.39 year; 100 males, 328 females). They completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Buss & Perry aggression questionnaire, the Anger Rumination Scale, the Effortful Control Scale, and the Malevolent Creativity Behavior Scale. The proposed moderated mediation model was tested using regression analysis and the PROCESS macro. Previous studies have suggested that malevolent creativity may differ by gender. Hence, the effect of gender was controlled in all analyses. Results showed that: (1) Aggression positively predicted malevolent creativity in college students. (2) Anger rumination partially mediated this association. (3) This mediating effect was moderated by EC, such that it was stronger for students with high EC than those with low EC. The present study is the first to demonstrate the detrimental impact of aggression and the moderated mediation effect of anger rumination and EC on malevolent creativity based on the GAM and four stages of creative thought. Our study provides evidence for the emergence of malevolent creativity through anger rumination. They also indirectly support the dual pathway to creativity model (DPCM), in which anger rumination promotes malevolent creativity through the persistence pathway. Furthermore, different from previous studies, effortful control plays a positive moderating role between angry rumination and malevolent creativity. We infer that effortful control may help the angry rumination individuals to continue processing the task at the unconscious level. These findings have significant theoretical and practical values and can contribute to reducing individual's malevolent creativity. Firstly, the mediating effect of anger rumination suggests that we can intervene in anger rumination from the perspective of negative emotions or cognition by some methods (such as mindfulness meditation), to further prevent malevolent creativity. Secondly, the moderating effect of effortful control indicates that effortful control, as a means of self-regulation, cannot effectively inhibit malevolent creativity, but will make it worse instead. With that in mind, we may consider adopting ways such as catharsis, theorized to be a safety valve, to defuse malevolent creativity. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Relationship between College Students’ Cultural Orientations and Self-objectification: The Mediating Role of Overt Narcissism Fan Linlin, Chen Hong, Liu Xinyuan Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 619-626.   Abstract （1163）      PDF（pc） （791KB）（1002）       Knowledge map    Save According to the objectification theory, frequent encounters with sexual objectification will coax people into internalizing a third-party self-perspective and observing themselves through a sexually objectifying lens, a process termed as self-objectification. Previous studies reported that a high level of self-objectification would be detrimental to individuals' physical and mental health, so it is important to explore what factors contribute to the development of self-objectification. At the individual level, cultural orientation is the way in which individuals view the relationship between themselves and the external world, and it includes four types: vertical individualism, vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism. Up to now, little research has explored how cultural orientation at the individual level affects self-objectification, and the results of cross-cultural research on self-objectification are also controversial. Overt narcissism is a personality trait, and previous studies suggested that culture may play an important role in shaping overt narcissism. In addition, overt narcissism affects individuals' body awareness. Several studies showed that overt narcissists think their bodies are attractive and they often have a higher level of self-objectification. In conclusion, first of all, there are controversies in previous cross-cultural studies on the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. Secondly, few researchers have explored the role of overt narcissism in the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification. In addition, most studies exploring the influence factors of self-objectification included only female participants, so the relationship between cultural orientation and self-objectification in male groups remains unclear. Herein, this study aims to investigate the relationship between cultural orientation and individual’s self-objectification among Chinese college students, and the mediating role of overt narcissism. In addition, this study further discussed whether the mediation model is consistent across genders. Participants included 1720 college students (556 males and 1164 females) from a certain university. Three questionnaires were used in this study: Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Individualism and Collectivism Scale, and Self-Objectification Questionnaire. These scales had good reliability and validity. All data was analyzed by the software of SPSS 21.0 and Amos 22.0. The results indicated that: (1) Vertical individualism was positively correlated with self-objectification, while vertical collectivism, horizontal individualism and horizontal collectivism were negatively correlated with self-objectification. (2) The mediating effect of overt narcissism was not significant in the relationship between horizontal cultural orientation and self-objectification, while horizontal individualism and collectivism only had a direct effect on self-objectification. Vertical individualism and collectivism can not only significantly predict self-objectification, but also affect self-objectification through the mediating role of overt narcissism. (3) There are significant gender differences in vertical dimension cultural orientation, overt narcissism and self-objectification: Male participants scored significantly higher than female participants on vertical individualism, vertical collectivism and overt narcissism, while female participants scored significantly higher than male participants on self-objectification. The mediating models between vertical cultural orientation and self-objectification have measurement equivalence between genders. These results suggest that self-objectification is affected not only by external social and cultural environments, but also by cultural orientation at the individual level and overt narcissism. This means that individual characteristics also play an important role in the formation and development of self-objectification. Concern for collective goals and interests and concern for building harmonious group relations are associated with lower self-objectification. Overemphasis on the uniqueness of the self and the maintenance of the unique self by means of competition and comparison with others are associated with higher self-objectification. Therefore, from the perspective of constructing the individual-collective relationship, researchers can reduce the level of self-objectification by encouraging individuals to devote themselves to the collective goal in future interventions. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Relationship between?3~4-Year-Old Children’ s Temperament and Parenting Style: A Two Wave Longitudinal Study Liu Wen, Guo Xin, Zhang Jiaqi, Hu Wenwen Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (3): 578-585.   Abstract （1137）      PDF（pc） （1248KB）（908）       Knowledge map    Save Temperament is a biology-based difference in individual reactivity and self-regulation, which is an important indicator of children's personality and social development. As children develop socialized, they can be modified by behavioral conditioning. Both family system theory and ecological systems theory emphasize that family is the main factor affecting children's development in individual development, especially in parenting. Parenting style refers to the attitude and behavioral tendency that parents show when educating and raising their children. The Transactional Model states that children and parents influence each other dynamically. In this process, the influence of children on parents is equally important as that of parents on children. The two-way relationship between children's temperament and parenting behavior may constitute an interactive and potential causal development path of children's adaptation in a wider developmental context. However, parenting does not happen in isolation, and child characteristics, such as temperament, might shape or evoke parenting behaviors. In turn, parenting behaviors might shape children's temperament, with this transaction between parenting and temperament contributing to children's adjustment. Examination of the relations between temperament and parenting can clarify their unique, additive, and bidirectional relations and elucidate developmental pathways to child adjustment. Throughout the previous studies, most of them examine the unilateral effect of children's temperament or parenting style, and most of them are reflected in the influence of parenting style on the socialization of children's temperament. There are relatively few longitudinal studies on the bidirectional relationship between children's temperament and parenting, and existing studies on the bidirectional relationship generally focus on specific parenting behaviors rather than on more generalized parenting style. Therefore, from the perspective of the developmental Transactional Model, this study will explore the bidirectional relationship between children's temperament and parenting style by using cross-lagged research method. In this study, a total of 293 3~4-year-old children were longitudinal?investigation by questionnaire for one year, two measurements were taken during the period. Children's Temperament Teacher Assessment Questionnaire and Parental Authority Questionnaire were distributed and filled in respectively to children's teachers and parents. All the measures were reliable and valid. SPSS 22.0 and Mplus 7.4 were used to analyze the data. A cross-lagged model was used to investigate the reciprocal relationship between children's temperament and parenting style. The results indicated as follows: there was a significant correlation between the dimensions of temperament and parenting style. Cross-lagged regression results indicated that Time 1 emotionality and concentration of children's temperament could significantly and negatively predict Time 2 mother's doting parenting style. Time 1 maternal doting parenting style negatively predicted the Time 2 activity of children's temperament; the activity of children's temperament and paternal authoritarian parenting style can predict each other, but the influence of paternal authoritarian parenting style on children's temperament activity is greater. Time 1 concentration of children's temperament negatively predicts Time 2 paternal authoritative parenting style, and Time 1 social inhibition negatively predicts Time 2 paternal doting parenting style. The research reveals that there is not only a significant correlation between children's temperament and parenting style at the same time but also a significant relationship with the development of time. This reminds us that children's temperament and parenting style is a dynamic interaction, which plays an important role in exploring the development trajectory of children. Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Cognitive Bias toward Body-Related Information of Different Emotional Valence among Females with Fat Negative Physical Self: An Event-Related Potential Study Yao Jiayi, Leng Xuechen, Feng Chengzhi, Feng Wenfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (5): 1026-1035.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230501 Abstract （1109）      PDF（pc） （1401KB）（937）       Knowledge map    Save Considering the prevalence and serious consequences of weight dissatisfaction, investigation of the cognitive and neural mechanisms of weight dissatisfaction seems to have important social implications. According to Vitousek and Hollon's (1990) cognitive theory of eating disorders, stereotyped, emotional, and exaggerated evaluations of weight-related information lead to maladaptive schemas related to body shape, weight, and the self. People with maladaptive schemas show an enhancement in attention and memory for schema-consistent information (e.g., fat stimuli) and selectively resist schema-inconsistent information (e.g., thin stimuli). At present, although previous studies have confirmed that people with fat negative body self show cognitive bias toward body-related information, there is still a lack of empirical research on the processing characteristics and neural mechanism toward body-related information of different emotional valence. In this experiment, participants were assigned to an experimental group with high weight dissatisfaction (HWD) and a control group with low weight dissatisfaction (LWD) according to the scores on the Negative Physical Self Scale-Fatness. The final sample included 40 female college students. We employed a modified 1-back task and recorded ERPs time-locked to visually present body-related words, including negative fat words, positive fat words, negative thin words, and positive thin words. The participants were requested to judge whether the current word was the same as the last one. Compared with the passive viewing and dot-probe paradigm, the 1-back task required participants to pay attention to each word, and after reducing the continuous repetition probability of the word, more analyzable trials could be reserved, and the fatigue effect of the participants could be alleviated to some extent. The behavioral results showed that the average accuracy for each group in the current study was over 95%, indicating that participants could complete the task efficiently. There was no significant difference in response time between the HWD and LWD groups. The ERP results showed that body-related words did not elicit larger anterior N1 and N170 amplitudes in the HWD group than in the LWD group, showing that there was no negative cognitive bias toward fatness-related information in the early ERP components related to attentional processing and cognitive resource investment among females with HWD. Besides, in both the HWD group and LWD group, body-related words induced larger P2 and LPP amplitudes and smaller N300 amplitudes than did non-body-related neutral words, additionally, positive thin words and negative thin words induced larger LPP amplitudes than did positive fat words and negative fat words. Since there were significant differences in LPP amplitude induced by different body-related words, the average LPP amplitudes were analyzed by four-factor ANOVA to further distinguish the processing differences between body shape dimensions (fat and thin) and emotional valence (positive and negative). The results showed that cognitive bias toward body-related words was dominated by body dimensions rather than emotional valence in the late processing stage, and the LPP amplitude induced by thinness-related words was significantly higher than that induced by fatness-related words. In conclusion, the present study partially validates the cognitive-behavioral theory. Specifically, in the early processing stage, females could distinguish between body-related and non-body-related information, both fatness-related and thinness-related information were emotionally salient, and under the influence of task demand, the processing of body-related information was suppressed subsequently. In the late processing stage, females invested more cognitive resources toward thinness-related information and maintained more attention to thinness-related information. And the most important finding was that the females' cognitive bias toward body-related information in late processing was dominated by body shape rather than emotional valence. These findings reveal the mechanism of cognitive bias toward body-related information among females with fat negative body self and contribute to the model of the cognitive-behavioral theory of body image disturbance, which may help enhance prevention and interventions for reducing weight dissatisfaction. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Social Anxiety Moderates the Process of Social Evaluation Expectations: A Drift-Diffusion Model Perspective Zhang Yifei, Zhao Haichao, Huang Aiyue, Li Xiaoyi, Shu Xin, He Yilin, He Qinghua Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1044-1054.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240503 Abstract （1108）      PDF（pc） （1207KB）（1611）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a state of excessive worry, nervousness, and anxiety that individuals experience in social situations. Examining the cognitive processes of individuals with varying degrees of social anxiety symptoms can help to further understand the cognitive mechanisms. Individuals with social anxiety tend to have irrational social evaluation expectations. The Violation of Expectation model describes the formation of expectations through two processes: general expectation and situational expectation. Additionally, an individual's mental illness symptoms (e.g. social anxiety) can influence the expectation process. Previous research has focused on the effect of social anxiety on expected evaluation outcomes, which may ignore the dynamic process of situational expectations. To address this issue, this study used the drift-diffusion model (DDM) to analyze the formation process of situational expectations. We not only verified the difference in valence (positive vs. negative), but also further explored the moderating effect of social anxiety. The aforementioned DDM allowed us to examine of the parameters associated with the process of situational expectations, including the starting biases, drift rates, non-decision time, and threshold. A total of 85 participants were included in the analysis and data collection was conducted online through Credamo. Social anxiety levels were measured using the short version of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and Social Phobia Scale, and general social expectation were measured using the adapted General Social Expectations Scale. To explore the formation of situational social evaluation expectations, we first elicited subjects' expectations through a structured interview in which we pretended that eight audiences of similar age were watching. A social evaluation expectation task was then designed in which subjects were asked to anticipate whether the audiences would describe them using some trait adjectives displayed. Pressing F represented yes and J for no. The experiment included two blocks, each containing 40 trials, with breaks set between blocks. In each block, there were 20 trials with positive social-related adjectives and 20 trials with negative social-related adjectives, and the adjectives were not repeated between the two blocks. The DDM model was optimized using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov method. According to a previous study, our research specified a DDM with starting biases and drift rates depending on the experimental conditions (i.e., adjectival valence). Then, we checked the model fit individually using a simulated study. SPSS 22.0 and R-based Jamovi software were used for statistical analysis. First, paired-sample t-tests were used to examine the differences of DDM parameters, accuracy rates, and response time across conditions. Second, correlation analyses were used to reveal the relationships between social anxiety, general social expectation, and DDM parameters. Third, general linear models were used to test the moderating effect of social anxiety on the relationship between general and situational expectations. The results indicated that positive evaluation expectations had higher drift rates and starting point biases than negative evaluation expectations. This suggests that participants were more likely to accumulate evidence confirming positive expectations and had a stronger prior bias toward positive expectations. However, there was no significant difference in the absolute value of the drift rate between positive and negative expectations, indicating that the direction of drift rate matters for the valence difference rather than the rate. Social anxiety and general social expectations significantly influenced the drift rate of positive and negative evaluation expectations. Social anxiety weakened the relationship between general social expectations and drift rate but strengthened the relationship between general social expectations and starting point bias, only in terms of the positive evaluation expectations. This indicates that high social anxiety may impair the formation of positive self-bias in social evaluation expectations, leading to a more negative overall evaluation. This study used the DDM to reveal the process of situational evaluation expectations. The results validated the positive self-bias of social expectation, and examine Violation of Expectation model in the field of social evaluation expectations. The moderating role of social anxiety in the formation of social evaluation expectations was demonstrated from a new perspective. This study provides new perspectives for understanding the process by which social anxiety influences the formation of social expectations. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Emotional Arousal and Associative Memory: The Role of Combinatorial Mapping Zhang Yurong, Niu Yuanyuan, Sun Caihong, Mao Weibin Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 281-289.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240204 Abstract （1082）      PDF（pc） （744KB）（1436）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies have found that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. The object-based framework explains this from the perspective of association type, which believes that emotional arousal will enhance the intra-item associative memory, and will not affect or damage the inter-item associative memory. However, studies which revealed that emotional arousal had different effects on associative memory are not only different in the types of associative memory, but are also different in the combinatorial mapping by reviewing previous studies. In the study of intra-item associative memory, multiple items usually correspond to one source, which is a "many-to-one" mapping, while in the study of inter-item associative memory, one to one item pairs are usually used, which reflects a "one-to-one" mapping. In this study, we intend to investigate whether combinatorial mapping is one of the reasons that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. We hypothesize that the influence of emotion on associative memory is not only related to the type of association, but is also related to the combinatorial mapping. To test the above hypothesis, seventy-four participants from Shandong Normal University were recruited. The number of participants was determined by G*power 3.1 software with reference to the effect size standard in previous studies. The experiments were performed in E-prime 2.10. Experiment 1 explored the effect of emotional arousal on intra-item and inter-item associative memory under the condition of "many-to-one" mapping. Experiment 2 investigated the effect of emotional arousal on different types of associative memory when the combinatorial mapping between the items was "one-to-one". Both Experiments 1 and 2 used a 2 (emotion type, negative, neutral) × (association type, intra-item, inter-item) mixed experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to intra-item association group or inter-item association group. In each experiment, three phases were included. During the study phase, participants were instructed to remember the association between the item and its character (for example, color, font, and so on) or the association between the item and background picture. Then, there was a distractor task which required participants to do the simple calculation task for two minutes. During the test phase, participants were instructed to decide whether the item had presented during the study phase first. If participants correctly judged the old items as old, they continued to do the associative recognition in which participants were asked to choose which form of item was presented or picture was presented simultaneously with the item in the study phase. Experiment 1 showed that when the combinatorial mapping was "many-to-one", emotional arousal enhanced the intra-item associative memory and damaged the inter-item associative memory, which was consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. Experiment 2 found that when the combinatorial mapping was "one-to-one", emotional arousal impaired intra-item associative memory and did not affect inter-item associative memory, which is not consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. According to the result of two experiments, it can be found that when the combinatorial mapping changed, the influence of emotional arousal on the association memory would change, too. Moreover, the influence of emotional arousal on associative memory was connected with both the type of association and related to the combinatorial mapping. The result showed that although the object-based framework can better explain the different effects of emotion on associative memory, the explanatory power of the theory still had boundary conditions. That is, the effect of emotion on associative memory was influenced by the type of association and the combinatorial mapping. The findings of this study can be used to further improve the theory that explain the different effects of emotion arousal on associative memory. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）