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Influencing Factors in the Allocation of Cognitive Control: Rewards and Costs Si Shuangqing, Zhou Sihong, Yuan Jiajin, Yang Qian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 258-266.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240201 Abstract （2182）      PDF（pc） （1015KB）（2785）       Knowledge map    Save Cognitive control refers to people’s ability to adaptively employ cognitive resources and adjust cognitive processes in pursuit of goal-directed behavior. Since naturally occurring behavioral situations are constantly changing, people would mobilize their control adaptively. According to the Expected Value of Control (EVC) model, the dynamic adjustment of control can be thought of as value-based decision making, centered on the integration of rewards and costs that can be expected from a control-demanding task. Hence, reward and cost are two key factors jointly modulating people’s motivation and determining the allocation of control. Following this framework but going beyond the EVC model, the current review elucidated the role of various motivation-related factors that can act as rewards or costs in the implementation of cognitive control, and discussed how they collectively adjust cognitive control. More specifically, money, juice, or emotional/social stimuli are extrinsic rewards that can drive cognitive control and improve task performance, albeit with a few exceptions. Considering this complexity, other factors can further modulate the beneficial effects (e.g., reward-poor vs. reward-rich task conditions, the congruity of reward and task performance, and individual reward sensitivity). Besides, in contrast to extrinsic rewards that are manipulated externally, intrinsic rewards are highly integrated into control-related tasks. It can be reflected in people’s autonomic engagement with certain tasks and the positive emotions they generated. In this sense, the investigation of the influence of intrinsic rewards on cognitive control is relatively indirect, which can be achieved by adjusting effort levels and positive emotions. Relatedly, individual differences in intrinsic motivation, as reflected by the need for cognition (NFC), are also closely tied to intrinsic rewards in driving control. That is, individuals high in need for cognition are more inclined to be involved in control demanding tasks and to persist in difficult or unprofitable cognitive tasks. Meanwhile, due to the presence of cognitive costs associated with exerting cognitive control, individuals typically show a bias toward opting for “low-effort” tasks, while decreasing the subjective value of the expected value. When discussing the impact of costs on cognitive control, it is necessary to consider the trade-off between rewards and costs. Previous studies have demonstrated that this trade-off process may vary among individuals based on their willingness to invest effort and their capacity to exert effort, depending on whether they place a higher value on rewards or costs. Consequently, we have further delineated the control signal intensity to effort levels and introduced the concept of “Subjective Expected Value of Control”, which is determined by the difference between the Subjective Value of Reward and the Subjective Value of Cost. Furthermore, the reward-cost trade-off is inherently dynamic, with individuals adapting their cognitive control with the automaticity of task performance in a given task, or in response to feature transfer across different task situations. Nonetheless, some unanswered questions need to be further investigated. Firstly, the mechanism underlying the reward-cost trade-off requires refinement. As individuals persistently allocate control, their instantaneous subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs expected from the current task may change dynamically. Although several theories have introduced dynamic elements to the EVC model in various ways, a fully dynamic representation of the reward-costs trade-off remains a topic of ongoing exploration. Secondly, the subjective trade-off between rewards and costs can be further modulated by additional individual factors closely related to external and internal motivations. Consequently, it is intriguing to explore how individual differences in reward sensitivity, cognitive need, intrinsic motivation, and opportunity costs may dynamically impact subjective evaluation of the rewards and costs of investing cognitive effort. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Mobile Phone Dependence on the Development of Social Anxiety in Junior High School Students: Longitudinal Mediating Effect of Body Shame Zeng Yixin, Zhang Bin, Xiong Sicheng, Long Zhuan, Zhang Anqi, Zeng Chengwei, Liu Jiaxi, Yang Ying Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 316-324.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240208 Abstract （2135）      PDF（pc） （1023KB）（2623）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a common emotional feature in the growth of children and adolescents. It mainly refers to the emotional experience of tension and anxiety when individuals interact with others in real life, which has a certain degree of negative impact on interpersonal skills, personal growth, development potential, and life attitude. In view of the multiplicity of social anxiety and its extensive influence, researchers have paid close attention to it in recent years, and it is particularly important to explore its influencing factors and developmental mechanisms. In particular, indulging in mobile phones may lead to the degradation of individual social skills, which in turn may induce social anxiety and other adaptation problems. At the same time, the propaganda of the ideal body image in media may cause the conflict between the ideal and reality among junior high school students, and deepen the shame of their own bodies. Previous studies have also shown that physical shame may play a mediating role in the relationship between mobile phone dependence and social anxiety. However, most literature still uses the traditional analysis method of comparing the change of mean value, which is unable to provide information of the complete development rate of variables, and it is difficult to accurately grasp the dynamic development process among variables. Therefore, this study intends to take junior high school students as the research subjects, using the two indicators of initial level and development rate in the latent growth model, to examine the developmental trend of mobile phone dependence in junior high school students, body shame, and social anxiety from a dynamic perspective, and further explore the internal mechanisms of the three. Using the Mobile Phone Dependence Scale, the Body Shame Scale, and the Social Communication Anxiety Scale, 339 junior high school students from two middle schools in Hunan Province were followed for three times in a year. All data were analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 7.0. The first step is to use SPSS 26.0 for descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Secondly, using Mplus 7.0 to build an unconditional latent growth model to examine the development trend of each variable, in which the intercept represents the initial state and the slope represents the development rate. The third step is to establish a conditional latent growth model to test whether the development track of social anxiety is directly affected by mobile phone dependence. The fourth step is to construct a structural equation model to explore the relationship between intercept and slope of mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Mobile phone dependence, body shame and social anxiety in junior high school students all showed a steady upward trend, and the initial level and development rate of social anxiety were significantly negatively correlated. (2) The initial level and development rate of mobile phone dependence can directly predict the initial level and development rate of social anxiety respectively. (3) The initial level and development rate of body shame played a complete longitudinal mediating role in the mechanism of the influence of mobile phone dependence on the development of social anxiety. Based on the longitudinal time course and the latent growth model, this study systematically explored the changing track, characteristics, and dynamic relationship among junior high school students' mobile phone dependence, body shame, and social anxiety, and accurately described the development and possible mechanisms of adolescent social anxiety and its risk factors. The results supported the Social Replacement Hypothesis, the Tripartite Influence Model, and the Cognitive Model of Social Anxiety, which has practical guiding significance for deepening the understanding of junior high school students' social anxiety, establishing effective detection and intervention measures, and promoting the mental health development of junior high school students. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Childhood Emotional Maltreatment and Early Adolescents’ Smartphone Addiction Severity: The Mediating Roles of General and Social Anxiety and the Moderating Role of Family Socioeconomic Status Zhou Nan, Zang Ning, Wang Shaofan, Li Zixuan, Chen Ling, Li Beilei, Cao Hongjian Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 325-333.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240209 Abstract （1733）      PDF（pc） （1218KB）（2310）       Knowledge map    Save In recent years, researchers have paid increased attention to the developmental sequela of early maltreatment experiences, including addictive behaviors. Emotional abuse and neglect are particularly influential in shaping children’s later socioemotional functioning because, compared to the other types of early maltreatment, they are more pervasive and their consequences are often not immediately observable. Notably, research on the link between emotional maltreatment and early adolescents’ addictive behaviors is limited in its primary focus on the direct associations, leaving the underlying mechanisms underexamined, and in its lack of differentiation between emotional abuse and emotional neglect. Based on the addiction compensation theory, this study sought to examine the links between early emotional abuse and emotional neglect and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction severity using data from a sample of 844, 7th graders from H province, China. This study also tested the mediating roles of general and social anxiety given that they may exhibit differential roles in explaining how early emotional maltreatment may elevate the risk of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may contribute to the formation of individuals’ shame-based cognitive-emotional scheme, which results in individuals’ habitual hiding from others and ultimately leads to social anxiety. Further, family socioeconomic status (SES) may also factor into the associations among early emotional abuse and emotional neglect, general and social anxiety, and early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. On the one hand, early adolescents from low SES families have limited resources that are unfavorable for development and thus the negative impact of early emotional abuse and neglect, such as anxious symptoms, would be stronger than those from high SES families. On the other hand, the lack of social support in family settings with low SES also may diminish adolescents’ resilience to cope with the consequences of early emotional maltreatment. Thus, the moderating role of family SES was examined in this study. The present path models revealed that early adolescents’ social anxiety only mediated the positive associations between early emotional abuse and their smartphone addiction severity. Moreover, the mediating effect of social anxiety was only present in early adolescents from families with high SES. These results delineated how early emotional abuse and emotional neglect may uniquely relate to early adolescents’ smartphone addiction via their associations with general and social anxiety. The incorporation of social anxiety beyond the general anxiety highlighted the importance of differentiating the two types of anxiety as well as documenting their respective roles. Further, the results also point to the necessity of moving beyond the average population to further explore the potential heterogeneity in the currently examined associations across different subgroups. The findings provide insights for future trauma-informed interventions that aim to reduce the incidence of early adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, for early adolescents with early emotional abuse and neglect experiences, practitioners should attend to their potential anxious symptoms. Moreover, for early adolescents from high SES families carrying the burdens of early emotional maltreatment, special attention is needed because of their potential social anxiety issues. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impact of Mental Imagery on Fear and its Neural Mechanisms Jin Yumeng, Wang Yizhen, Zhang Jie, Wang Jinxia, Dou Haoran, Zhang Huoyin, Lei Yi Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (6): 1282-1292.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240601 Abstract （1713）      PDF（pc） （370KB）（1919）       Knowledge map    Save Anxiety is a prevalent emotional disorder that can be divided into several subtypes, including generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and panic disorder, all of which are characterized by fear as the primary emotional component. Mental imagery, a complex cognitive phenomenon, is characterized by the generation of sensory representations in the absence of direct sensory input, and is particularly relevant to the study of visual perception and its associated neural correlates. The current review examines the role of visual mental imagery in the context of fear and anxiety, its neural underpinnings, and potential therapeutic applications. The discussion of the relation between mental imagery and fear begins by examining the impact of mental imagery on fear with respect to its defining attributes, neural substrates, and the temporal course of its manifestation. Research has revealed that mental imagery, serving as a "simulation" akin to actual visual perception, engages a multitude of brain regions that are identical to those activated during genuine sensory experiences. Consequently, this mental simulation exerts equivalent effects on the induction and modulation of fear responses. The neural underpinnings of this phenomenon implicate a complex interplay between the sensory cortices. Visual mental imagery is known to engage the primary visual cortex (V1, V2, and V3), with a robust body of neuroimaging research highlighting the similarities in neural activation patterns between actual visual perception and mental imagery. The vividness and modifiability of mental imagery are critical in shaping emotional responses, particularly fear, which is a cardinal feature of various anxiety disorders. Individuals with anxiety-related conditions may exhibit exaggerated fear responses to innocuous stimuli due to the involuntary generation of threatening mental images that are closely linked to their core fears and can provoke both physiological and emotional responses. The neural substrates of mental imagery have been extensively investigated, with studies demonstrating that the primary visual cortex is involved in processing both actual visual stimuli and mental imagery. The cortical surface area of V1 has been found to be negatively correlated with the intensity of mental imagery, suggesting a role in the modulation of imagery vividness. The temporal dynamics of mental imagery have been studied using event-related potentials (ERPs), revealing early neural activities associated with face recognition, such as the N170 component, which occurs around 170ms post-stimulus onset. The integration of top-down imagery signals with bottom-up perceptual signals is reflected in the P2 component (200ms-260ms). Furthermore, the early posterior negativity (EPN) and late positive potential (LPP) components have been implicated in the emotional response associated with mental imagery, with enhanced activity observed during the processing of negative mental imagery. Additionally, the recruitment of other brain regions, such as the hippocampus and amygdala, during mental imagery processing points to a distributed neural network underlying the generation of imagery related to fear. Mental imagery has been shown to influence the acquisition, generalization, and extinction of conditioned fear responses. Fear conditioning, a well-established paradigm in the study of fear and anxiety, involves the pairing of a neutral stimulus (CS) with an aversive stimulus (US), leading to the development of a conditioned response (CR) to the CS in the absence of the US. Research has indicated that mental imagery can facilitate the acquisition of fear, with the imagined presence of a threat capable of eliciting a fear response similar to that provoked by actual perception. Moreover, fear acquired through perception can generalize to mental imagery, thereby perpetuating the cycle of fear in individuals with anxiety-related disorders. Subsequently, clinical interventions utilizing mental imagery, such as imaginal exposure and imagery rescripting, have demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders. Imaginal exposure involves the repetitive presentation of fear-related mental images to attenuate the distress associated with fear memories. Imagery rescripting allows individuals to alter the narrative of traumatic memories by envisioning a new, safer outcome, thereby modifying the emotional significance of the memory. Both approaches have shown promise in reducing fear and improving symptoms associated with anxiety-related disorders. Finally, acknowledging the limitations of current research within the conditioned fear paradigm, the discussion shifts towards the potential for future studies to further explore the neural mechanisms and clinical interventions related to fear learning from the perspective of mental imagery. This approach could provide novel insights into the intricate interplay between mental imagery and fear, offering a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive and neural processes that underlie fear conditioning and its modulation. By leveraging the unique advantages of mental imagery as a research tool, future studies can contribute to the development of more targeted and effective therapeutic strategies for the treatment of fear-related disorders, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of clinical interventions and improving patient outcomes. In conclusion, mental imagery represents an important avenue for understanding and treating anxiety-related psychological conditions. The vividness and malleability of mental imagery, its neural correlates, and its impact on fear learning and extinction offer valuable insights for the development of targeted therapeutic interventions. Future research endeavors should focus on delineating the neural mechanisms underlying mental imagery in the context of fear generalization and extinction, investigating the effects of vivid mental imagery on fear, and examining the differential neural activation patterns between individuals with anxiety-related disorders and healthy controls during the processing of fear-related mental imagery. These investigations have the potential to enhance our understanding of the role of mental imagery in fear and anxiety, thereby informing the development of more effective treatment strategies. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impairment of Prospective Memory by Alcohol Use: Antecedents and Mechanisms Xin Cong, Wang Haoyuan, Zhang Xinyu, Lu Dongfeng Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 267-273.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240202 Abstract （1694）      PDF（pc） （337KB）（2501）       Knowledge map    Save Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to perform a delayed intention at an appropriate time or situation in the future, such as remembering to return a book to the library tomorrow morning or to take a daily medication. Memory failures that occur in the future generate more problems in daily life than memory failures that occur in the past. It has been found that 50~70 percent of real-life memory failures can be attributed to failures in prospective memory. The completion of most activities in daily life is closely related to prospective memory. Previous studies have typically investigated prospective memory using a dual-task paradigm, which included both prospective memory and ongoing tasks. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs and has been shown to play a complicated role in mental health and society. The association between alcohol use and cognitive function has drawn attention, and the adverse effects of alcohol use on cognitive function are well-documented. Alcohol use can damage the brain structure and cognitive function, and reduce the individual’s prospective memory performance. More generally, the study of prospective memory failures under alcohol is important to health behavior since many interventions targeted at non-dependent drinkers rely, to some extent, on prospective memory. The relation between alcohol use and prospective memory is influenced by many factors, including alcohol use patterns and doses, other substance abuse, differences in research measures, and types of prospective memory. Successful completion of prospective memory relies on the coordinated functioning of the subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility). Individuals firstly encode and store prospective memory intentions. When prospective memory cues appear, individuals need to retrieve prospective memory intentions, inhibit the ongoing task, remember the task rules and the responses, and flexibly switch from the ongoing task to the prospective memory task. The cognitive mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory are mainly related to executive function and attentional systems. In terms of neurological mechanisms, where alcohol use affects prospective memory involves the prefrontal and parieto-occipital cortex, the limbic system (hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and superior colliculus), cerebral cortical, and medullary substance. A systematic analysis of the factors influencing the relation between alcohol use and prospective memory and a summary of the mechanisms through which alcohol use affects prospective memory is of great value. It may inform interventions efforts that aim to improve the performance of prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use in the future. Future research can investigate the effects of alcohol use on prospective memory components by experimental isolation and the separation of prospective memory processing phases in combination with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) brain imaging techniques to understand the specific mechanisms of alcohol use on different prospective memory processing phases. In addition, future research should focus on the differences and improvements in research methods and on factors that improve prospective memory in clinical samples of alcohol use. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Influence of Spatiotemporal Perception and Landmarks on Spatial Information in Cognitive Maps Huang Lei, Zhang Junheng, Yu Yingyue, Chao Jingyi, Ji Ming Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1055-1068.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240504 Abstract （1688）      PDF（pc） （2985KB）（2672）       Knowledge map    Save A cognitive map is a mental representation of space that aids in spatial navigation and includes both spatial and temporal characteristics. Research indicates that individuals utilize temporal intervals to express spatial distances, reflecting spatiotemporal navigation traits. However, cognitive maps exhibit flexibility and distortion. Subjective perception of time, as a human cognitive process, can easily influence cognitive maps, leading to cognitive distortion in spatial information. To provide a comprehensive view of navigation, the attributes of landmarks must also be considered. Previous research has demonstrated that landmarks influence individuals' perception of time. Consequently, we hypothesize that environmental landmarks may interact with spatiotemporal, thereby impacting the processing of spatial information in cognitive maps. This study aims to elucidate the influence of spatiotemporal and landmarks during navigation in order to explore their effects on cognitive maps. The study consisted of two experiments. Experiment 1 aimed to investigate the interaction between spatiotemporal and landmarks in the formation of cognitive maps. The Path Integration Paradigm was employed to assess participants' ability to construct cognitive maps. A total of 34 participants completed the Path Judgment Task and the Sketch Map Task as part of the experiment. The experimental design followed a 2 (spatiotemporal span: 50s wayfinding vs. 100s wayfinding) * 2 (landmarks: landmarks vs. non-landmarks) mixed model, with spatiotemporal span as the between-subjects variable, landmarks as the within-subjects variable, and the results of the path judgment task and the sketch map task as the dependent variables. The results of experiment 1 revealed that in the 100s wayfinding condition, accuracy of distance judgments decreased, while the accuracy of turning angle judgments improved. In the presence of environmental landmarks, individuals tended to overestimate path distance under prolonged perception conditions, while exhibiting minimal errors in the accuracy of spatial information judgment. No effect of spatiotemporal perception on the accuracy of cognitive map making was observed in experiment 1. Experiment 2 provided further insight into the impact of spatiotemporal perception on spatial information in cognitive maps. The experimental setup paralleled that of experiment 1, with 35 subjects recruited to participate. The experiment utilized a 2 (spatiotemporal span: pause vs. non-pause time) * 2 (landmarks: landmarks vs. non-landmarks) mixed model, with spatiotemporal perception as the between-subjects variable, landmarks as the within-subjects variable, and the results of the path judgment task and sketch map task as the dependent variables. The results of experiment 2 indicated that spatial perception did not significantly affect the judgment of turning angles. However, path judgment errors increased with navigation duration, and landmarks interfered with judgment. This study explores the impact of spatiotemporal factors on cognitive map construction after individuals familiarize themselves with new environments. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of spatiotemporal on the processing of spatial information in cognitive maps during navigation. The results unveiled a correlation between spatial information processing and spatiotemporal during the construction of cognitive maps, with individuals utilizing navigation duration as a basis for estimating path distance. The accuracy of path judgments improved with longer spatiotemporal span, while the accuracy of turning angle decreased with longer spatiotemporal spans. Moreover, landmark enhanced spatiotemporal perception, enhancing path judgment accuracy but impeding turning angle judgment accuracy. These findings further indicate that distinct processing mechanisms underlie straight-line and turning processing in spatial information. Straight-line information processing is influenced by spatiotemporal perception modulated by speed perception, whereas turn processing is influenced by temporal perception. The comprehensive spatial information processing and simulation results support the Tolman-Eichenbaum Machine (TEM) model of spatial information in cognitive maps and provide direct evidence for the mechanism of cognitive map construction. The research focuses on the spatiotemporal attributes in constructing cognitive maps and broadens the scope of cognitive map research, thereby aiding researchers to understand human spatial navigation behavior. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Chinese Thinking Style and Mental Health: The Role of Mental Resilience and Self-Esteem Huang Lianqiong, Luo Xi, Hou Yubo Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 458-466.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240224 Abstract （1669）      PDF（pc） （1319KB）（2112）       Knowledge map    Save Extensive empirical studies have revealed the significant impact of mental health on individual psychosocial adaptation. However, with the acceleration of the pace of life and the intensification of competition, Chinese people are confronted with a sharp increase in the pressure from different aspects, followed by mental health problems that are increasingly prominent. According to the Blue Book of Mental Health: Report on National Mental Health Development in China (2019~2020), Chinese people scored significantly lower in emotional experience, self-knowledge, interpersonal communication, and adaptability in 2020 than in 2008. Therefore, it has become an urgent obligation for psychological researchers to deeply explore the factors affecting mental health and to put forward suggestions to meet people's needs for mental health services. Previous studies have pointed out that culture is an organic factor that constitutes mental health problems, and it is necessary to make efforts from the perspective of Chinese culture in order to solve Chinese mental health problems effectively. In view of this, the present study surmises that the Chinese thinking style, which reflects the characteristics of national culture, may be an important factor affecting mental health. The purpose of this study was to examine how the Chinese thinking style, which is influenced by eastern culture, affects individuals’ mental health, as well as the role of mental resilience and self-esteem. In the present study, participants were recruited to participate in the online questionnaire survey through the online platform Questionnaire Star. The data were collected in two waves. Participants completed the Chinese Holistic Thinking Style Scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, and the demographic questions at time 1. After an interval of one week (time 2), they completed the Mental Resilience Scale and the General Health Questionnaire. Totally 630 valid questionnaires were collected. The results indicated that (1) the connectedness dimension of Chinese thinking style significantly positively predicted mental health, while the contradiction dimension significantly negatively predicted mental health. (2) Mental resilience partially mediated the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health. (3) Self-esteem not only played a significant moderating role in the relationship between the Chinese thinking style and mental health, but also moderated the relationship between thinking style and mental resilience, as well as between mental resilience and mental health. That is, self-esteem played a core role in the present model. These findings not only revealed the significance of Chinese thinking style in affecting the level of mental health but also showed the underlying mechanism of Chinese thinking style on mental health, especially the core role of self-esteem in the model. The results of this study enlighten us that enhancing mental resilience by training and strengthening people's holistic thinking style will contribute to improving their mental health status. Future researchers should further explore the positive influence of thinking style training on mental health. In addition, self-esteem exerts great influence upon Chinese psychosocial adaptation and behaviors, thus it is necessary to pay sufficient attention to the cultivation of Chinese people’s self-esteem in the future. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Social Anxiety Moderates the Process of Social Evaluation Expectations: A Drift-Diffusion Model Perspective Zhang Yifei, Zhao Haichao, Huang Aiyue, Li Xiaoyi, Shu Xin, He Yilin, He Qinghua Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1044-1054.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240503 Abstract （1585）      PDF（pc） （1207KB）（2394）       Knowledge map    Save Social anxiety is a state of excessive worry, nervousness, and anxiety that individuals experience in social situations. Examining the cognitive processes of individuals with varying degrees of social anxiety symptoms can help to further understand the cognitive mechanisms. Individuals with social anxiety tend to have irrational social evaluation expectations. The Violation of Expectation model describes the formation of expectations through two processes: general expectation and situational expectation. Additionally, an individual's mental illness symptoms (e.g. social anxiety) can influence the expectation process. Previous research has focused on the effect of social anxiety on expected evaluation outcomes, which may ignore the dynamic process of situational expectations. To address this issue, this study used the drift-diffusion model (DDM) to analyze the formation process of situational expectations. We not only verified the difference in valence (positive vs. negative), but also further explored the moderating effect of social anxiety. The aforementioned DDM allowed us to examine of the parameters associated with the process of situational expectations, including the starting biases, drift rates, non-decision time, and threshold. A total of 85 participants were included in the analysis and data collection was conducted online through Credamo. Social anxiety levels were measured using the short version of the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale and Social Phobia Scale, and general social expectation were measured using the adapted General Social Expectations Scale. To explore the formation of situational social evaluation expectations, we first elicited subjects' expectations through a structured interview in which we pretended that eight audiences of similar age were watching. A social evaluation expectation task was then designed in which subjects were asked to anticipate whether the audiences would describe them using some trait adjectives displayed. Pressing F represented yes and J for no. The experiment included two blocks, each containing 40 trials, with breaks set between blocks. In each block, there were 20 trials with positive social-related adjectives and 20 trials with negative social-related adjectives, and the adjectives were not repeated between the two blocks. The DDM model was optimized using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov method. According to a previous study, our research specified a DDM with starting biases and drift rates depending on the experimental conditions (i.e., adjectival valence). Then, we checked the model fit individually using a simulated study. SPSS 22.0 and R-based Jamovi software were used for statistical analysis. First, paired-sample t-tests were used to examine the differences of DDM parameters, accuracy rates, and response time across conditions. Second, correlation analyses were used to reveal the relationships between social anxiety, general social expectation, and DDM parameters. Third, general linear models were used to test the moderating effect of social anxiety on the relationship between general and situational expectations. The results indicated that positive evaluation expectations had higher drift rates and starting point biases than negative evaluation expectations. This suggests that participants were more likely to accumulate evidence confirming positive expectations and had a stronger prior bias toward positive expectations. However, there was no significant difference in the absolute value of the drift rate between positive and negative expectations, indicating that the direction of drift rate matters for the valence difference rather than the rate. Social anxiety and general social expectations significantly influenced the drift rate of positive and negative evaluation expectations. Social anxiety weakened the relationship between general social expectations and drift rate but strengthened the relationship between general social expectations and starting point bias, only in terms of the positive evaluation expectations. This indicates that high social anxiety may impair the formation of positive self-bias in social evaluation expectations, leading to a more negative overall evaluation. This study used the DDM to reveal the process of situational evaluation expectations. The results validated the positive self-bias of social expectation, and examine Violation of Expectation model in the field of social evaluation expectations. The moderating role of social anxiety in the formation of social evaluation expectations was demonstrated from a new perspective. This study provides new perspectives for understanding the process by which social anxiety influences the formation of social expectations. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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EEG Neurofeedback for Working Memory Enhancement: A Literature Review Zhou Wenbin, Nan Wenya, Fu Yunfa Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 514-521.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240301 Abstract （1476）      PDF（pc） （627KB）（1634）       Knowledge map    Save Working memory refers to the ability to maintain and manipulate information over a period of seconds. In daily life, many complex cognitive activities such as learning and decision-making need the participation of working memory. Whether working memory performance can be improved by certain ways of training has been a hot research topic. Neurofeedback (NF) is a type of biofeedback that uses the principle of operational conditioning to enable individuals to learn regulating their own brain activity. During electroencephalogram (EEG) NF training, the EEG signals are recorded from single or multiple electrodes attached on the scalp and relevant features are extracted and presented to the training individuals in real time by visual, auditory, or combined visual-auditory forms. Thus, participants can be aware of their brain state in real time. When their brain activity meets some predefined rewarded criteria, they will be rewarded by the feedback interface that presents real time feedback feature, such as increasing the sphere size in visual feedback, music quality in auditory feedback, etc. With NF training practice, they will learn how to adjust their brain activities that underlie a specific behavior or pathology. A large amount of studies have shown that NF training can improve cognitive ability and behavioral performance in both clinical patients and healthy population. Regarding the NF training effectiveness for working memory enhancement, the existing research conclusions are not consistent due to the variations of the experimental design, training protocol, participants’ population, and sample size in the literature. Therefore, this study systematically reviewed previous studies on EEG NF training for working memory performance improvement. It started with the principle and mechanism of NF training and the introduction of the current research progress. Then the article reviewed the experimental results using different NF training protocols including theta enhancement NF, alpha enhancement NF, SMR enhancement NF, beta enhancement NF, gamma enhancement NF and two frequency bands NF protocols. We found that alpha, SMR and theta enhancement NF have shown the benefits on working memory enhancement in most studies. However, a few studies have reported inconsistent results, including the failure to adjust the training EEG feature (i.e. the non-learner problem) and no significant enhancement in working memory compared to the control group. Future research can be conducted from following three aspects. First, the neural mechanism of EEG NF training effects on working memory has not been clear yet. Previous work only examined the EEG activity during NF training and resting periods. Whether and how NF training influences the brain activity in working memory task and results in working memory performance change remains unknown yet. Future work can utilize a variety of imaging methods such as EEG, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and positron emission tomography (PET) to examine the brain activities during NF training, during resting state and during working memory task. Second, the non-learner problem has been reported in a number of studies. Although a few studies have identified some physiological and psychological predictors for non-learners in some NF protocols, the findings cannot be generalized due to the complexity of EEG activity, the variety of participants’ population and inconsistent experimental design. Future work is suggested to utilize machine learning methods to identify the predictors of non-learners in different NF training protocols in order to understand the reason of non-learner problem, and save time and effort on non-learners. Finally, the optimization of training parameters including training schedule and feedback interface, the adoption of randomized double-blind sham-controlled experimental design, clear reporting the experimental methods and results are desired in future NF studies. This review is expected to provide reference and pave the way for future research. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Aggression and Malevolent Creativity: A Moderated Mediation Model Wu Jiaqi, Ren Xiao, Gong Zhe Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 367-374.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240214 Abstract （1467）      PDF（pc） （876KB）（1675）       Knowledge map    Save Creativity, involving individual ability improvement, social development, and national core competitiveness, has drawn a lot of attention in the social sciences. Creativity could have a dark side in its nature, which is termed as malevolent creativity. Malevolent creativity is the application of creativity to intentionally generate products that do harm to others and society. Prior studies have investigated a significant positive correlation between aggression and malevolent creativity. The present study has taken two theoretical perspectives by adopting the General Aggression Model (GAM) and four stages of creative thought. According to the GAM, aggression may increase the risk of malevolent by increasing anger rumination. Anger rumination may play a role of reappraisal in GAM. That is, aggression can lead to anger rumination, which in turn will predict malevolent creativity. From the perspective of four stages of creative thought, anger rumination is similar to the preparation period, analyzing and reflecting on the object of attack or the angry event, in an attempt to solve the problem by means of malevolent creativity. Furthermore, individual differences in effortful control (EC) may moderate this mediation process, in which high EC individuals may be more vulnerable to anger rumination than low EC individuals. In sum, we proposed a moderated mediation model to account for malevolent creativity. Specifically, we test the relationship between aggression and malevolent creativity, the mediating effect of anger rumination, and the moderating effect of EC, in a sample of college students. Participants of this study were 428 college students (Mage = 19.44 years, SD = 1.39 year; 100 males, 328 females). They completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Buss & Perry aggression questionnaire, the Anger Rumination Scale, the Effortful Control Scale, and the Malevolent Creativity Behavior Scale. The proposed moderated mediation model was tested using regression analysis and the PROCESS macro. Previous studies have suggested that malevolent creativity may differ by gender. Hence, the effect of gender was controlled in all analyses. Results showed that: (1) Aggression positively predicted malevolent creativity in college students. (2) Anger rumination partially mediated this association. (3) This mediating effect was moderated by EC, such that it was stronger for students with high EC than those with low EC. The present study is the first to demonstrate the detrimental impact of aggression and the moderated mediation effect of anger rumination and EC on malevolent creativity based on the GAM and four stages of creative thought. Our study provides evidence for the emergence of malevolent creativity through anger rumination. They also indirectly support the dual pathway to creativity model (DPCM), in which anger rumination promotes malevolent creativity through the persistence pathway. Furthermore, different from previous studies, effortful control plays a positive moderating role between angry rumination and malevolent creativity. We infer that effortful control may help the angry rumination individuals to continue processing the task at the unconscious level. These findings have significant theoretical and practical values and can contribute to reducing individual's malevolent creativity. Firstly, the mediating effect of anger rumination suggests that we can intervene in anger rumination from the perspective of negative emotions or cognition by some methods (such as mindfulness meditation), to further prevent malevolent creativity. Secondly, the moderating effect of effortful control indicates that effortful control, as a means of self-regulation, cannot effectively inhibit malevolent creativity, but will make it worse instead. With that in mind, we may consider adopting ways such as catharsis, theorized to be a safety valve, to defuse malevolent creativity. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Adolescent Smartphone Addiction and Unintentional Procrastination: The Mediating Role of Attentional Control and the Moderating Role of Self-Expansion via Smartphone Liu Qinxue, Tian Zhonghe, Qi Di, Wu Jayin, Zhou Zongkui Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 726-733.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240327 Abstract （1454）      PDF（pc） （640KB）（1835）       Knowledge map    Save Smartphone has been exceedingly popular among adolescents and becomes an essential tool for communicating, looking for information, and having fun. However, the extensive use of smartphones leads to smartphone addiction, which brings many negative consequences, such as procrastination. Procrastination was usually regarded as a failure of self-regulation. However, recently, the Metacognitive Model of Procrastination has proposed that procrastination can be further divided into intentional procrastination and unintentional procrastination (UP). Studies have shown that UP, which is passive, involuntary, and with negative metacognitive beliefs and feelings, can better predict negative consequences such as depression, anxiety, and failure in academic achievements than intentional and general procrastination. Thus, this study took the concept of UP to better illuminate the mechanism of how smartphone addiction was related to UP. According to prior studies, smartphone addiction may be an important factor that influences the UP in adolescents. Therefore, this study attempted to examine the relation between the two variables and the underlying mechanism. Attentional control is the ability to consciously activate, focus and shift attention during interference. Empirical studies have found that smartphone addiction could damage one’s attentional control. Meanwhile, according to the Self-Regulatory Executive Functioning Theory and the Metacognitive Model of Procrastination, the derogation of attentional control may be related with UP. Therefore, attentional control may mediate the relation between smartphone addiction and UP among adolescents. From the perspective of the self-expansion model and the role of smartphone in our life, prior researchers proposed the concept of self-expansion via smartphone. We inferred that adolescents’ level of self-expansion via smartphone would moderate the relation between smartphone addiction and attentional control. The present study constructed a moderated mediation model to explore the effect of smartphone addiction on adolescents’ UP, and further explore the mediating role of attentional control and the moderating role of self-expansion via smartphone. A sample of 866 students (44.9% males; Mage = 16.00 years, SD = .84 years) from two regular high schools completed the Smartphone Addiction Scale for College Students, the Attentional Control Scale, the Unintentional Procrastination Scale, and the Mobile Phone Self-Expansion Scale. SPSS 24.0 and SPSS macro PROCESS were used to manage and analyze data. The results indicated that: (1) Adolescent smartphone addiction positively predict UP. (2) Attentional control (including distraction and shifting) played a partial mediating role between adolescent smartphone addiction and UP. (3) Self-expansion via smartphone moderates the relation between smartphone addiction and distraction but not shifting. Specifically, when the level of self-expansion via smartphone is higher, smartphone addiction predicted distraction more significantly. The study revealed the mechanisms in the relation between adolescent smartphone addiction and UP. Smartphone addiction could influence adolescents’ UP through attentional control, and the mediation effect of attentional control was influenced by self-expansion via smartphone. Moreover, the present study extended previous research and provided empirical implications for the prevention of procrastination and how to reduce the negative consequences of smartphone addiction. We could reduce adolescents’ tendency to complete self-expansion via smartphone and train their attentional control ability to reduce the negative effects of smartphone addiction. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Impact and Intervention of the Approach-Avoidance Tendencies on the Ensemble Coding of Emotional Facial Expressions in a Crowd Lai Tingting, Zhu Wujing, Lin Zengzhen, Wang Xiaoqin, Jia Lei Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1026-1035.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240501 Abstract （1426）      PDF（pc） （1216KB）（1994）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies have investigated the approach-avoidance response to emotional faces and the processing characteristics of facial emotional ensemble coding as separate entities. However, there is a lack of research that has integrated these two aspects to explore the potential influence of approach-avoidance tendencies, induced by the same set of emotional facial expressions on facial expression ensemble encoding. To address this research gap, we conducted two logically progressive experiments by combining the classic approach-avoidance task with the emotional facial expression ensemble task. The goal was to investigate the potential impact of emotional approach-avoidance tendencies on the ensemble coding of facial emotions. Furthermore, we aimed to explore whether the motivational dimensions of emotional stimuli modulate the ensemble coding of facial emotions from the perspective of motivational orientation theory. The experiment was programmed using Presentation software (Neurobehavioral Systems Inc.) and presented on a 21-inch Dell monitor. Experiment 1 employed a 2 (emotional valence: positive vs negative) × 2 (motivational orientation: approach vs. avoidance) within-subjects design. The dependent variable was the mean error value of face emotion ensemble coding ($\mathrm{ME}=\frac{\sum \text { |test-mean }}{n}$). The positive or negative faces were presented in two ways: approaching and withdrawing. Participants were instructed to perceive the mean emotion of the group faces. They were then asked to use the mouse wheel to adjust the emotion of the test face to match the mean emotion of the group faces. Experiment 2 was simplified based on the results of Experiment 1. The positive faces from the ensemble coding task in Experiment 1 were discarded. A 2 (group: experimental group vs. control group) × 2 (motivational orientation: approach vs. avoidance) two-factor mixed design was used in Experiment 2. This experiment consisted of four phases: an emotional state pre-test, a sentence arrangement task, an emotional state post-test, and a group face ensemble coding task. The “experimental group-control group” design was adopted, and different sentence arrangement tasks were set up before the face emotion ensemble coding task. This was done to test whether implicit emotion regulation strategies could reduce the influence of negative avoidance tendencies on face emotion ensemble coding. The results of Experiment 1 revealed a significant interaction between emotional valence and motivational orientation in the face emotional ensemble coding task (p < .05). Further analysis showed that the error in coding negative faces in the approach condition was significantly higher than in the avoidance condition. Additionally, the average error in ensemble coding for negative faces in the avoidance condition was significantly lower than for positive faces. In Experiment 2, the results showed a significant interaction between group and motivational orientation (p < .01). The simple effect analysis indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean error between the approach and avoidance conditions in the experimental group. However, in the control group, the mean error in the approach condition was significantly higher than in the avoidance condition, which was consistent with the findings in Experiment 1. Moreover, the mean error in approach conditions in the control group was significantly higher than that in the experimental group. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that emotional avoidance tendency has an impact on face emotion ensemble coding, while a cognitive reappraisal strategy can eliminate this effect. It supports the motivational orientation theory and challenges the event coding theory. Furthermore, it highlights the significant influence of the motivational dimension of emotional stimuli on emotion perception. The key conclusions are as follows: (1) Negative avoidance tendencies can affect the ensemble coding of emotional faces and induce perceptual biases. (2) Implicit cognitive reappraisal can reduce negative avoidance tendency and regulate its influence on the ensemble coding of emotional faces. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Reciprocal Relation Between Executive Function and Emotion Regulation in Preschoolers: A Cross-Lagged and Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Analysis Xing Xiaopei, Zhao Xinyu, Hu Xia Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (1): 80-88.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240110 Abstract （1407）      PDF（pc） （1286KB）（1054）       Knowledge map    Save As two important components of self-regulation, executive function (EF) and emotion regulation (ER) are closely associated. EF refers to the high-level cognitive processes that are necessary for planning and executing goal-directed behavior, and ER refers to the extrinsic and intrinsic processes responsible for monitoring, evaluating, and modifying emotional reactions, especially their intensive and temporal features, to accomplish one’s goals. Existing, empirical studies have shown that children’s positive EF is conducive to the development of their ER, and higher ER skills can also improve children's EF. However, longitudinal research scarcely explored the potential reciprocal relationship between EF and ER. Moreover, developmental theory is typically concerned with within-person variability, and developmental processes are often assumed to occur within, rather than between individuals. The cross-lagged panel model (CLPM), a traditional method testing direction of effects, fails to separate between-person variance from within-person variance. In this regard, the random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) could split the variance of each variable into stable between-person variation, which denotes, on average, whether children who perform better on one variable (e.g., EF) also perform better on the other (e.g., ER), and within-person variation, which denotes changes from one’s own mean level (e.g., EF) during the assessment period as a function of changes in one’s own levels of the other variable (e.g., ER) and the autoregressive effect from the previous assessment point. Therefore, the aim of this study is to use the RI-CLPM to provide a strong test of both between- and within-person associations between EF and ER during preschool period. Meanwhile, we also use the CLPM to test the EF-ER relations to further verify and compare results. In addition, EF components, including inhibitory control, working memory and attention shift, are suggested to be independent of each other even at a young age and also to undergo distinct developmental changes with age. Thus, it is vital to understand how each EF component is related to ER and whether the relations would vary with EF components. The longitudinal sample consisted of 381 Chinese preschool children (Wave 1:Mage = 4.22 years, SD = .46 years; 50.97% boys, 49.03% girls) in Beijing. During three waves, mothers reported children’s EF using the Behavior Rating Inventory of the Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P), which included the inhibitory self-control index (ISCI), the emergent metacognition index (EMI) and the flexibility index (FI). Children’s ER was also reported by mothers using the Emotional Regulation Checklist (ERC). The internal consistency was good for both measures at three times. The results of the CLPMs showed that all of the autoregressive paths were statistically significant. With regard to the cross-lagged effects, ISCI and FI were bidirectionally related to ER at T1 and T2, but only the paths from EF at T1 and T2 and EMI at T2 to ER at the subsequent time point were significant, but not vice versa. The results of the RI-CLPMs showed that at within-person level, all of the autoregressive paths were not statistically significant except for the path from ER at T2 to ER at T3. As to cross-lagged paths, FI and ER were reciprocally predicted at the within-person level between T1 and T2, and ER at T1 significantly predicted the within-person changes in ISCI at T2. In addition, at the between-person level, the random intercepts of EF, ISCI and EMI were significantly correlated with the random intercept of ER. In sum, the associations between EF and ER are found to be different for EF components. The associations between ISCI/EMI and ER are more likely to occur at the between-person level, and the relations between FI and ER primarily represent within-person associations only from early preschool to middle preschool. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Balanced Time Perspective and Mental Health: The Mediating Effects of Emotion Regulation Strategies Li Xiaobao, Lyu Houchao Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (3): 562-569.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240307 Abstract （1398）      PDF（pc） （725KB）（1560）       Knowledge map    Save Balanced time perspective refers to an individual's overall positive cognition of the past, present, and future, and the ability to show adaptive time perspective depending on a situation's demands. Numerous studies have generally found a positive and strong association between balanced time perspective and indicators of mental health. However, little is known about the mediating mechanism underlying this link. Previous studies have shown that emotion regulation strategies are closely related to subjective well-being and anxiety. Generally speaking, individuals who frequently use cognitive reappraisal strategy are likely to experience better subjective well-being and less anxiety, whereas people who often use expressive suppression strategy tend to experience a low level of subjective well-being and a high level of anxiety. In addition, given that balanced time perspective is closely related to individual emotions, motivations, and behaviors, it may be an important factor affecting emotion regulation strategies. Thus, we hypothesized that emotion regulation strategies would mediate the linkage between balanced time perspective and mental health. To test our hypotheses, a total of 1432 adults aged 17 to 76 years old (Mean age = 29.04 years old, SD = 14.38 years old) participated in the present study via an online survey. They anonymously completed questionnaires regarding balanced time perspective, emotion regulation strategies, life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect, and anxiety. All the data were analyzed with the software SPSS 22.0 and Mplus7.0. We first used correlation analysis to preliminary test the relationship among study variables, and then structural equation modeling was used to test the mediating effects of emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health. Mental health was treated as a latent variable including four indicators: life satisfaction, positive affect, negative affect and anxiety. Results showed that (1) balanced time perspective positively correlated with life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively related to negative affect and anxiety. (2) Balanced time perspective positively linked with cognitive reappraisal and negatively linked with expressive suppression. Cognitive reappraisal was positively related to life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively related to negative affect and anxiety. Expressive suppression was positively related to negative affect and anxiety. (3) The relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health was significantly mediated by cognitive reappraisal (in a positive direction) and expressive suppression (in a negative direction). These findings highlighted the importantance of involving balanced time perspective and emotion regulation strategies when explaining individuals’ mental health. In summary, this study confirmed the positive effect of balanced time perspective on mental health and demonstrated the mediating role of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression in the relationship between balanced time perspective and mental health. The results of this study have implications for clinical practice and suggestions that promote well-being and reduce anxiety by building a balanced time perspective were provided. Limitations and future directions were also discussed. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Developmental Trajectories of Adolescent Anxiety: A Growth Mixture Modeling Approach Xiang Yanhui, Hou Rongxia Journal of Psychological Science    2025, 48 (1): 53-63.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20250106 Abstract （1383）      PDF（pc） （1373KB）（2531）       Knowledge map    Save Anxiety is a type of negative emotional experience that puts the individual in a state of physiological tension and high arousal, with symptoms such as nervousness, restlessness, and insomnia. Anxiety is common among adolescents and can lead to many physical and psychological problems. Therefore, studying the developmental characteristics of anxiety in adolescence has important practical implications. Most of the predecessors have discussed the risk outcomes of anxiety (gambling, substance abuse, suicide, etc.), but few have discussed the dynamic characteristics of adolescent anxiety. In addition, previous studies mainly rely on Western adolescents, and the development of anxiety in Chinese adolescents is less often studied. Therefore, based on latent growth modeling and growth mixture modeling, this study explored the development trend of adolescent anxiety in junior middle school students in China for the first time, to provide an important theoretical and practical basis for preventing anxiety symptoms and improving the mental health level of adolescents. The anxiety level of students in 2 junior high schools was assessed 3 times in 2 years by cluster sampling method. In this study, the anxiety subscale in the simplified Chinese version of the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Scale (DASS-21) was used to measure the anxiety level of junior high school students. There were 684 adolescents participating in the first wave, 698 in the second wave, 600 in the third wave, and 483 in all three measurements. The results of the Chi-square test and t-test indicate that there were no significant differences between the loss subjects and the effective subjects in terms of gender (χ²(1)=2.45, p > .05), father's education level (χ²(6)=7.71, p > .05), mother's education level (χ²(6)=3.88, p > .05), subjective socioeconomic status (χ²(9)=10.41, p > .05), and anxiety level (t(652)=-1.28, p > .05). This indicates that there was no structured loss of subjects, and as a result, we deleted the data of the missing samples. Finally, the sample included in this study was 483 adolescents who participated in all three waves. They were in the seventh (239) and eighth (244) grades at the time of the first wave, with an average age of 13.05 ± .75 years. Of these, 255 (52.80%) were male, 217 (44.93%) were female, and 11 (2.28%) did not report their gender. In this study, SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 8.3 were used for data analysis. Firstly, latent growth modeling was established to explore the overall developmental trend of adolescent anxiety. Secondly, a growth mixture modeling was constructed to explore the heterogeneity of the development trend of adolescent anxiety, in which the model with 2 categories was the best-fitting model. Finally, we examined the moderating role of gender in the developmental characteristics of adolescent anxiety. The results showed that: (1) Within 2 years, the anxiety level of junior high school students showed a linear decline trend; (2) There were 2 developmental trajectories of adolescent anxiety——low-risk group and high-risk group: 89.65% of adolescents belonged to the low-risk group, the initial anxiety level was low, and the anxiety level decreased with time; 10.35% of adolescents were classified into the high-risk group, with the initial anxiety levels being high and remaining relatively stable; (3) Gender played a moderating role in the developmental trend of adolescent anxiety. In terms of the overall developmental trend of adolescent anxiety, the anxiety level of girls was significantly higher than that of boys. In terms of the heterogeneous developmental trajectory of adolescent anxiety, girls were more likely to belong to the high-risk group. For the first time, this study used tracking data to unveil the developmental patterns of anxiety among Chinese middle school students via growth mixture modeling. The findings revealed that the majority of adolescents exhibited a declining trend in anxiety levels, with only a small fraction experiencing sustained high anxiety. This research holds significant implications for understanding the trajectory of anxiety development among Chinese adolescents and contributes valuable insights to the study of their emotional development. Moreover, it provides an essential theoretical and practical foundation for targeted prevention and intervention strategies for adolescent anxiety. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Self-Esteem and Problematic Mobile Phone Use Among Middle School Students: Mediation of Social Anxiety and Escapism Motivation Jiang Shuyang, Liu Rude, Feng Mao, Hong Wei, Jin Fangkai Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (4): 940-946.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240422 Abstract （1362）      PDF（pc） （631KB）（1666）       Knowledge map    Save Problematic mobile phone use refers to a constellation of addiction-related symptoms, such as craving, dependence, tolerance and withdrawal. Previous studies have demonstrated that problematic mobile phone use may lead to a variety of harmful consequences, including academic failures, sleep disturbances, depression symptoms, and low life satisfaction. These studies emphasize the urgent need to prevent problematic mobile phone use, especially for school students. Studies have indicated that 10.5% of adolescents are problematic mobile phone users and 20.5% are potential problematic users. Thus, the current study aims to explore potential predictors and underlying mechanisms of problematic mobile phone use to promote students' physical and psychological well-being. Researchers have consistently provided evidence indicating that high self-esteem may be related to lower levels of problematic mobile phone use. However, little is known about the psychological mechanism underlying this relation. Drawn from the Sociometer Theory and the cognitive-behavioral model, dysfunctional self-schemata (e.g., low self-esteem) may contribute to negative emotions during social interactions (e.g., social anxiety), which lead to negative coping strategies (e.g., escapism motivation), and further increase the potential risk of using mobile phone problematically. Therefore, social anxiety and escapism motivation may be plausible explanations for the association between self-esteem and problematic mobile phone use. The present study investigated the relationship between self-esteem and problematic mobile phone use among Chinese adolescent students, and explored the mediating effects of social anxiety and escapism motivation. Using the relevant questionnaires, 438 middle school students (203 boys, 231 girls) were recruited for the study. All the participants have finished the questionnaires to report their status of self-esteem, social anxiety, escapism motivation and problematic mobile phone use. Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations coefficients between the main variables were calculated using SPSS 23.0 software. To test the hypotheses, we used PROCESS macro to calculate the 95% confidence intervals with 5000 resamples. The main conclusions were drawn as follows: (1) Correlation analysis showed that students' self-esteem was negatively correlated with social anxiety, escapism motivation, and problematic mobile phone use. (2) Regression analysis revealed that self-esteem was negatively associated with problematic mobile phone use. (3) Mediation analysis revealed that self-esteem was negatively associated with students' problematic mobile phone use not only through the direct path, but also through the indirect path of social anxiety and escapism motivation, as well as the chain mediating path between social anxiety and escapism motivation. The findings of the present study contributed to the previous studies by highlighting the crucial role of self-esteem and demonstrating the process of positive reinforcement in the etiology of problematic use. These results can also provide practical guidelines for protecting adolescents from addicting to mobile phone. For instance, school prevention programs can include specific activities to enhance students' self-evaluation and improve their social skills to deal with complex social situations. For example, more communication skills and perspective-taking training may be helpful to reduce social anxiety and build up better interpersonal relationships. When students have practical strategies to cope with daily life challenges, they are less likely to resort to mobile phones for distraction, which can help them alleviate their distress. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Bidirectional Associations Between Friendship Quality, Subjective Well-Being and Loneliness Among Children: A Longitudinal Study Liu Xu, Liu Yuxiao, Chen Qian, Cao Min, Peng Ji, Zhou Zongkui Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (4): 819-828.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240407 Abstract （1362）      PDF（pc） （991KB）（1702）       Knowledge map    Save The establishment of close friendships begins in childhood and is an important milestone in development. High-quality friendship is an essential force in promoting children's mental health development, which can improve children's subjective well-being and reduce loneliness. According to development contextualism, friendship is an important developmental context for children, which may have a bidirectional association with subjective well-being and loneliness. This bidirectional association has a long-term impact on children's development. To explore children's developmental trajectory, this study employed a longitudinal design spanning three years to examine the bidirectional relationship between children's friendship quality, subjective well-being, and loneliness. A three-wave longitudinal study with one-year interval was conducted. A total of 212 third and fourth graders (Mage = 8.77 years, SD = .73; 59.4% male) in the central city completed questionnaires concerning friendship quality, subjective well-being, and loneliness. All the measures had good reliability and validity, and there was no serious common method bias. SPSS 25.0 was used to conduct descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. After completing item parceling, we constructed the random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) in Mplus 8.3 and employed the full information maximum likelihood estimation (FIML) to deal with missing data. The RI-CLPM allows to separate between-person effects from within-person effects. It was used to investigate whether children with higher friendship quality might subsequently have higher subjective well-being and lower loneliness, and vice versa. The results of the correlation analysis showed that children's friendship quality was positively associated with subjective well-being, and negatively associated with loneliness, both concurrently and longitudinally (ps < .001). The results of RI-CLPM indicated that, at the between-person level, the random-intercept factor for friendship quality was positively related to that for subjective well-being (r = .55, p < .05), but negatively related to that for loneliness (r = -.74, p < .01). After controlling for between-person stability, the within-person paths showed that the relationship between friendship quality and loneliness was reciprocal. More specifically, initial friendship quality significantly negatively predicted loneliness at Time 2 (β = -.24, 95%CI [-.422, -.053]), which in turn negatively predicted friendship quality at Time 3 (β = -.22, 95%CI [-.426, -.004]). Additionally, loneliness at Time 1 also negatively predicted friendship quality at Time 2 (β = -.26, 95%CI [-.498, -.015]). However, between friendship quality and subjective well-being, subjective well-being at Time 1 can significantly predict friendship quality at Time 2 (β = .34, 95%CI [.059, .620]), whereas cross-lagged paths of the reversed direction were not significant (ps > .05). This study reveals the bidirectional associations between friendship quality and loneliness at the within-person level by adopting a longitudinal design and constructing the RI-CLPM. This contributes to methodological innovation for the circular effects research orientation emphasized by development contextualism. Furthermore, it suggests that we can simultaneously intervene in both friendship quality and loneliness to construct a positive cycle. Meanwhile, the different relationships between friendship quality, subjective well-being, and loneliness indicate the importance of time in understanding individual development. In general, this study broadens the understanding of the specific connections and dynamic changes between friendship and the development of children's mental health. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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The Effect of Active Forgetting on Negative Emotion and its Cognitive Mechanism Yang Wenjing, Liu Qi, Jia Hui Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (5): 1069-1079.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240505 Abstract （1315）      PDF（pc） （1056KB）（2070）       Knowledge map    Save Active forgetting is a cognitive process designed to facilitate the loss of certain memories by modifying either the state of the memory itself or the neural pathways leading to it. This process has significant implications for how individuals manage their memories, especially negative ones, which can affect mental health and emotional well-being. Recent research on active forgetting has focused primarily on its effects on individual memory, while few empirical studies have examined how it affects the negative emotion triggered by the negative memory. To fill this gap, the current study used the classic Think/No-Think (TNT) paradigm to investigate the effects of active forgetting on negative emotions and the associated cognitive mechanisms. The research was conducted in two separate experiments. In the first experiment, 43 college students participated as paid volunteers in the TNT paradigm using sixty object-picture pairs. Neutral object pictures were presented as cues, with the paired negative images acting as the targets for suppression. A crucial part of this experiment was examining how active forgetting can be used to mitigate the emotional response to negative stimuli. Before and after the TNT phase, participants rated the pleasantness and arousal elicited by these negative images. The results from this phase of the study provided insightful data on how effectively the TNT paradigm can alter emotional processing. The second experiment extended the investigation to autobiographical memories and involved 53 undergraduate students. The procedure mirrored that of Experiment 1, but the materials were adapted to include personal memories. Similar to Experiment 1, both subjective and objective measures were assessed before and after the TNT phase to evaluate changes in the participants' emotional responses. The results of Experiment 1 revealed a significant suppression-induced forgetting (SIF) effect, consistent with prior studies, suggesting that repeated retrieval inhibition could mitigate forgetting. This effect was observed across five different subjective and objective memory indicators, extending previous research by incorporating various memory indices from both subjective and objective perspectives. Notably, there were significant changes in affective measures of pleasantness and arousal following the TNT phase. Participants reported increased pleasantness and decreased arousal of the materials, indicating that they were capable of actively forgetting negative memories through repeated retrieval inhibition. More importantly, suppression forgetting could reduce the negative affective experiences induced by these negative memories. Experiment 2 aimed to determine if the SIF effect observed in Experiment 1 could extend to self-related autobiographical memories. Similar to the first experiment, the results also showed a SIF effect on the autobiographical memories. Moreover, repeated retrieval suppression also reduced negative emotional responses to these autobiographical memories. Specifically, participants' self-reported pleasantness increased after the TNT phase. Additionally, the self-reported arousal of the materials decreased after the TNT phase. The results suggest that forgetting suppression through repeated retrieval inhibition is effective for personally relevant memories and significantly enhances individuals' emotional pleasantness toward negative autobiographical memories. In summary, this study provides empirical evidence for the role of memory control in emotion regulation. It demonstrates that motivated forgetting reduces individuals' negative emotional responses to negative memories. The process of retrieval inhibition diminishes not only the detail and vividness of the memory, but also the associated negative emotional reactions. While most previous studies have focused on the SIF effect in memory control, this study highlights the importance of memory control in emotion regulation and proposes active forgetting as a potential strategy for managing negative emotions in daily life. Future research is needed to explore the neural mechanisms that facilitate the SIF effect and to determine how these processes can be enhanced or targeted in therapeutic settings. Additionally, studies could investigate the long-term effects of active forgetting on mental health and emotional well-being. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Emotional Arousal and Associative Memory: The Role of Combinatorial Mapping Zhang Yurong, Niu Yuanyuan, Sun Caihong, Mao Weibin Journal of Psychological Science    2024, 47 (2): 281-289.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20240204 Abstract （1279）      PDF（pc） （744KB）（1681）       Knowledge map    Save Previous studies have found that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. The object-based framework explains this from the perspective of association type, which believes that emotional arousal will enhance the intra-item associative memory, and will not affect or damage the inter-item associative memory. However, studies which revealed that emotional arousal had different effects on associative memory are not only different in the types of associative memory, but are also different in the combinatorial mapping by reviewing previous studies. In the study of intra-item associative memory, multiple items usually correspond to one source, which is a "many-to-one" mapping, while in the study of inter-item associative memory, one to one item pairs are usually used, which reflects a "one-to-one" mapping. In this study, we intend to investigate whether combinatorial mapping is one of the reasons that emotional arousal has different effects on associative memory. We hypothesize that the influence of emotion on associative memory is not only related to the type of association, but is also related to the combinatorial mapping. To test the above hypothesis, seventy-four participants from Shandong Normal University were recruited. The number of participants was determined by G*power 3.1 software with reference to the effect size standard in previous studies. The experiments were performed in E-prime 2.10. Experiment 1 explored the effect of emotional arousal on intra-item and inter-item associative memory under the condition of "many-to-one" mapping. Experiment 2 investigated the effect of emotional arousal on different types of associative memory when the combinatorial mapping between the items was "one-to-one". Both Experiments 1 and 2 used a 2 (emotion type, negative, neutral) × (association type, intra-item, inter-item) mixed experimental design. Participants were randomly assigned to intra-item association group or inter-item association group. In each experiment, three phases were included. During the study phase, participants were instructed to remember the association between the item and its character (for example, color, font, and so on) or the association between the item and background picture. Then, there was a distractor task which required participants to do the simple calculation task for two minutes. During the test phase, participants were instructed to decide whether the item had presented during the study phase first. If participants correctly judged the old items as old, they continued to do the associative recognition in which participants were asked to choose which form of item was presented or picture was presented simultaneously with the item in the study phase. Experiment 1 showed that when the combinatorial mapping was "many-to-one", emotional arousal enhanced the intra-item associative memory and damaged the inter-item associative memory, which was consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. Experiment 2 found that when the combinatorial mapping was "one-to-one", emotional arousal impaired intra-item associative memory and did not affect inter-item associative memory, which is not consistent with the prediction of the object-based framework. According to the result of two experiments, it can be found that when the combinatorial mapping changed, the influence of emotional arousal on the association memory would change, too. Moreover, the influence of emotional arousal on associative memory was connected with both the type of association and related to the combinatorial mapping. The result showed that although the object-based framework can better explain the different effects of emotion on associative memory, the explanatory power of the theory still had boundary conditions. That is, the effect of emotion on associative memory was influenced by the type of association and the combinatorial mapping. The findings of this study can be used to further improve the theory that explain the different effects of emotion arousal on associative memory. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）

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Fear of Missing Out or Social Avoidance? The Relationship Between Peer Exclusion and Problematic Social Media Use Among Adolescents Dou Kai, Li Yanyu, Wang Linxin, Nie Yangang Journal of Psychological Science    2023, 46 (5): 1081-1089.   DOI: 10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.20230507 Abstract （1252）      PDF（pc） （1757KB）（1060）       Knowledge map    Save With the rapid development of Internet and the widespread utilization of smartphones, the popularity of social media platforms among adolescents has risen and concerns on adolescents' social media use are rising among schools and families. Problematic social media use (PSMU) refers to an unhealthy and excessive way of social media use, characterized by additive-like and uncontrollable social media use behavior. PSMU has been related to negative life consequences such as low academic achievements, poor sleep quality, and mental health issues. Therefore, understanding the risk factors of PSMU and the underlying mechanism has garnered significant attention from scientists around the world. Previous studies on PSMU mainly focused on the predicting role of individual factors. It is still unknown whether and how peer environment influences PSMU among adolescents. Peer exclusion, a vital negative peer environment indicator, may act as a risk factor in increasing adolescents' PSMU. Adolescents who are socially excluded by their peers may seek compensation from internet because of different social motivations. Therefore, the present study investigated the predicting role of peer exclusion on PSMU and its underlying process by distinguishing between social approaching motivation (i.e., fear of missing out) and social avoiding motivation (i.e., social avoidance). Moreover, little is known about the regional differences of these associations. To address these hypotheses, we constructed an “approaching-avoiding” parallel-path model and recruited participants from both Guangzhou and Macao. A total of 965 adolescents (Mage = 12.78 years old, SD = 2.45 years old; 52% are male) from Guangzhou (n = 749) and Macao (n = 216) participated in this study. Participants anonymously completed the Peer Exclusion Scale, the Fear of Missing Out Scale, the Social and Avoidance Scale, and the Problematic Social Media Use Scale. Meanwhile, demographic information, including gender, age, grade, and parental educational level, was also collected. The results showed that: (1) Adolescents who reported higher levels of peer exclusion displayed higher levels of PSMU; (2) The indirect effect of fear of missing out as a mediator between peer exclusion and PSMU was positive and significant and was consistent across both Guangzhou and Macao; (3) The indirect effect of social avoidance as a mediator between peer exclusion and PSMU was only significant among adolescents in Guangzhou. Furthermore, among the total indirect effects of mediators, the indirect effect of fear of missing out was found to be stronger than that of social avoidance. In conclusion, the current study sheds light on the impact of peer exclusion, a core detrimental environmental factor, on PSMU among adolescents. Results indicated that peer exclusion may increase adolescents' PSMU through fear of missing out and social avoidance, with differences noted between adolescents in Guangzhou and Macao. These findings contribute to the existing literature on the compensatory Internet use theory and the Multi-motive Model, and further our understandings of the psychological mechanism between peer exclusion and PSMU. Moreover, this research has practical significance for decreasing adolescents' PSMU and highlights the importance of peer environment. Findings suggest that intervening on peer exclusion might be promising to reduce adolescents' PSMU and additional attention should be paid to the regional difference between Guangzhou and Macao. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics | Comments（0）