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The effect of Type A/B personality on time-based prospective memory Yuan Hong 2011, 34(4): 770-774.  Abstract ( )   PDF (552KB) ( )   Time-based prospective memory is defined as the ability to remember to perform intended actions in the future (Einstein & McDaniel, 1996). Good time management requires the ability to both plan a schedule and keep to it (Francis-Smythe & Robertson, 1999). Good time managers are more likely to complete a task on time and as such be effective in their use of time management as an aid to time-based prospective memory (Francis-Smythe, 2006). High time urgency might predispose people to use effective time management behaviors as either compensatory or aiding strategies to perform the target task of time-based prospective memory on time. The Type A behavior pattern was first described as a set of behaviors that were related to development of coronary heart disease. People with Type A personality profiles are said to exhibit a strong sense of time urgency, an intense need to complete tasks, and a preoccupation with meeting deadlines. In contrast, people with Type B behavior pattern are much less driven by the deadline, so they are less concerned about completing tasks on time and meeting deadlines than their Type A counterparts in general (Searleman, 1996).As one of the main components of Type A behavior pattern, time urgency is considered to be a multi-dimensional construction which is composed of time awareness, scheduling, list making, eating behavior and deadline control.Therefore, with strong time urgency and deadline control, Type A behavior pattern, one of time-related personalities, is considered to be related with time-based prospective memory. On the basis of these studies, performances on time-based prospective memory task and ongoing task, time monitoring modes during performing time-based prospective memory task by subjects with A and B behavior patterns are compared in this research.We checked the time monitoring modes, which include times and accuracy of clock checking, the distributions of clock checking during intention retention when performing a time-based prospective memory task that is neither interpersonal in nature nor personally important to the subjects. As a result, we observed no significant difference in the performances of prospective memory between subjects with Type A and B personalities, while performance of ongoing task for Type A better than Type B personalities. Moreover, subjects with Type A personality checked clock less, but more accurately, than subjects with Type B personality did. As the target time was approachin Related Articles | Metrics

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The Mechanism of Reduced Semantic Priming in Repeated Priming Yao Yanzhu He Xianyou Hong Tian 2011, 34(4): 775-781.  Abstract ( )   PDF (572KB) ( )   Used a 2*3*2 mixed design, we tested the difference of repeated priming effect between the same conditions and the relevant conditions, under different SOA conditions. The results showed that in a short 167ms SOA, the priming effect between repeat/same and repeat/related had no difference, and the relevant prime repetition did not lead to the reduction of semantic priming effect. In a long 1200ms SOA, there was a significant difference between repeat/same and repeat/related, and the relevant prime repetition do lead to the reduction of semantic priming effect, meanwhile the repeat/same did not lead to any reduction of semantic priming effect. After the offset of expectancy effect and the decay of semantic activation, we believe that the priming effect difference between repeat/same and repeat/related in 1200ms SOA is because of the obstruction of the initiation of spreading. Based on the results and the principle of least effort, we believe that in the long SOA conditions, there is no spreading occurred as scheduled. Therefor we concluded that prime repetition does affect the initiation of spreading in the long SOA, when P2 is not actually masked and can be clearly recognized. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comparison of Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers and Mandarin speakers about the cyclical temporal reasoning 2011, 34(4): 782-787.  Abstract ( )   PDF (543KB) ( )   This study compared the differences between Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers and Mandarin speakers about temporal reasoning. Experiment 1 and 2 showed that whether the materials is "not to five as a unit," "5 as a unit" or "character as a unit," the reaction time of Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers was longer than Mandarin speakers. The experiment 3 and 4 indicated that both Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers and Mandarin speakers adopted number processing in time reasoning when the materials was "5 as a unit", but to the materials of “‘character’as a unit”, Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers adopted image processing.The differences of temporal reasoning between Cantonese–Mandarin diglossia speakers and Mandarin speakers can be explained by the Weaker Links Hypothesis. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Time Analysis in the Retrieval Process of Autobiographical Memory Based on Odor Cueing CHEN Hong 2011, 34(4): 788-793.  Abstract ( )   PDF (578KB) ( )   This study inspects the difference of the retrieval time of autobiographical memory. Two experiments are designed to reveal that whether existing a decision process of odor identification in the proust effect. In the two experiments, subjects were presented with odors, or labels of the odors’ names, or odors of different identification levels. We find that there is interference effect in conditions of label cue with an incongruent odor cue, but not in conditions of a label cue with a congruent odor cue. And we find that there are interference effects in both conditions whereas difficult or easy levels of odor identifications in experiment 2. These suggest that the decision process of odor identification exists in the retrieval of autobiographical memory when evoked by odor. It is showed that the retrieval of autobiographical memory based on odor cuing is a kind of dual-process mechanism, in which the odor itself and the odor identification promote the autobiographical memory retrieval process together. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Numerical and Physical Anchors on Decision Processes of Duration Estimation 2011, 34(4): 794-798.  Abstract ( )   PDF (474KB) ( )   The present research adopted the basic anchoring paradigm, used time words and physical duration as numerical anchors and physical anchors separately, and explored the effects of anchors that with different presentation forms or magnitudes on decision processes of time production (experiment 1) and verbal estimation (experiment 2). 55 undergraduate students were recruited to participate in the present study. The results indicated that the numerical anchors provide starting points for verbal estimation and assimilated the verbal estimates at the decision-making process; while the physical anchors were used as standard of comparison in time production and verbal estimates and assimilated time productions but contrasted verbal estimates at the decision-making process. Related Articles | Metrics

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Regulation of Familiarity of Second Language Words in Semantic Access in Bilinguals 2011, 34(4): 799-805.  Abstract ( )   PDF (671KB) ( )   Introduction Bilingual memory representation has received considerable attention from many researchers for several years. For less fluent bilinguals, semantic access is indirect via the first language words. For fluent bilinguals, semantic access is direct. How is the transformation processing from the indirect access to the direct access? The present study tested semantic access of differently familiar second language words of bilinguals by two experiments with the task of cross-language repetition priming. Method Participants were less proficient Chinese-English bilinguals in Experiment 1 and proficient Chinese-English bilinguals in Experiment 2. Both of two experiments were carried out on computers using E-Prime software. There were study phase and test phase during each experiment in this study. Participants were instructed to complete the animacy decision tasks in study phase in the English and lexical decision tasks in test phase in Chinese. The response time and accurate rates were recorded and SPSS 10.0 software was used to analyze the results data. Results The response time to the words studied was significantly faster than that to the words unstudied for the unfamiliar second language words both in experiment 1 and in experiment 2. Whereas for the familiar second language words, there was no significant difference between the response time to the words studied and that to the words unstudied. For the accurate rates, the results of the experiments were consistent with that on response time. Results of the two experiments showed that bilinguals can access to the conceptual representation of the familiar second language words directly and to the conceptual representation of the unfamiliar second language words indirectly. Conclusion Semantic access is regulated by second language words familiarity. All the results of recent experimental reports indicate that semantic access of second language in late bilinguals’ memory representation is basically experiential. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between the Emotional Stroop Effect and the Stroop Effect 2011, 34(4): 806-812.  Abstract ( )   PDF (638KB) ( )   Abstract This study explored the relationship between the emotional Stroop effect and the Stroop effect. It measured the Stroop effect by place decision task, picture-word interference and color–word interference, also, measured the emotional Stroop effect by affective face sex–decision task, affective lexical decision task and affective picture color–naming task. Then, it explored the relationship between the two effects through Structural Equation Modeling. The results showed: （1）There were distinct Stroop interferences and emotional Stroop interferences among participants.（2）The emotional Stroop effect and the Stroop effect were two independent and different phenomenons. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of emotion on false memory and its application 2011, 34(4): 813-818.  Abstract ( )   PDF (561KB) ( )   False memory was affected by the emotion . The influence of emotion on false memory is characterized by the following features:(a).the false memory effect is larger under positive than under negative mood states.(b)negative stimuli induce more false memory relative to neutral and positive stimuli.(c).false memory is more significant when to-be-recognized items are emotionally congruent with people’s mood states. These results have important practical implications for problem solution in the area of justice and psychological counseling: (1)avoid the Mood-congruent effect of false memory.(2)choose proper way of questioning in different mood condition.(3)implant false memory to cure addiction.(4)judging whether the memory is true or not based on the emotional susceptibility. In the future, futher study should focus on the interaction between the emotion and false memory in order to improve its practical value. Related Articles | Metrics

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Consciousness of Text Representation in Coherence-based Reading 2011, 34(4): 819-823.  Abstract ( )   PDF (500KB) ( )   Long et al. (2006) found that the construction of situation model is conscious while the construction of textbase is unconscious through the two paradigms（IRK and PDP） in text reading. This is inconsistent with the processing theory of Bi-mechanism in text-reading which states that the construction of situation model is unconscious in coherence-based reading while is conscious in focus-based reading. We think that the inconsistence is caused by the nature of experiment material. In this study, two experiments were designed to explore the consciousness of situation model and textbase in coherence-based reading with the two paradigms（IRK and PDP）. A self-paced, line-by-line reading paradigm was used in this study. In experiment 1, 30 University students were asked to read 12 narrative passages. After reading all of the texts, participants received the recognition test. They were instructed to press a key labeled new if they believed the sentence did not appear in one of the texts they had read. Otherwise, the participants were instructed to press a key labeled old,then they were asked to decide whether they had a vivid, clear consciousness of the sentence; if so, they were asked to press a key labeled R (remember). If they did not have a vivid, clear consciousness of the sentence but still believed the sentence had appeared in one of the texts, they were asked to press a key labeled K (know). In experiment 2, 32 University students were asked to read 12 groups narrative passages. Each participant read six blocks of consistent-version texts and six blocks of qualified-version texts, and then they received a recognition test after each block. After reading one block, they were given one instruction (inclusion instruction or exclusion instruction). In inclusion test, participants were asked to respond old if the sentence appeared in either Story A or Story B and were asked to respond new to any new item. In exclusion test, participants were asked to respond old only if the sentence appeared in Story B and were asked to respond new if the sentence was from Story A or if the item was new. In these two experiments, the reading time of target sentence in qualified condition was longer than that in consistent condition. More importantly, there was no difference between the consistent version and qualified version in the rate of consciousness and unconsciousness.The results showed that both the construction of situation model and textbase is unconscious. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Temperament on Emotion Regulation among adolescents: the Role of Teacher Affect 2011, 34(4): 834-838.  Abstract ( )   PDF (421KB) ( )   Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) techniques were used to explore the role of teacher affect in the effect of temperament on emotion regulation among adolescents. Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) and Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised (EATQ-R) were administered among 1385 students from grade 7 through grade 12 and Teacher Affect Questionnaire (TAQ) among 36 head teachers in China. Results showed that different dimensions of temperament had different effects on emotion regulation, and different aspects of teacher affect exerted different modulations on the process of the influence of temperament for emotion regulation. These results mean that in the process of affect teaching, teachers should take different strategies of affect teaching for students of different temperaments to promote the development of students’ emotion regulation. 注：因接到编委会通知需要500字长摘要，而长摘要无法上传，只好放在文章中，该处只是短摘要。 Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study on the Effect of visuospatial working memory and non-verbal fluid intelligence on Pupils’ Mathematical Performance Zhu xiaobin 2011, 34(4): 845-851.  Abstract ( )   PDF (635KB) ( )   visuospatial working memory and non-verbal fluid intelligence played an important part in pupils’ mathematical performance .The study examined how the two factors affected pupils’mathematical performance. Its result indicates that Different subscores of mathematical skills (geometry, word problems, and mental arithmetic) were accounted for by fluid intelligence and different measures of VSWM,Passive simultaneous VSWM is a significant predictor in mental arithmetic, active VSWM in geometry and passive sequential VSWM in maths word problems.The effect of VSWM on athematical performance was observed to be mediated by fluid intelligence. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the Relationship between Affective Forecasting Bias and Decision Making in Adolescents 2011, 34(4): 852-855.  Abstract ( )   PDF (341KB) ( )   Purposes: When making decisions, people usually make an affective forecasting of a special choice, which shows that affective forecasting has a great effect on decision making. Affective forecasting can be broken down into four components: predictions about the valence of one's future feelings, the specific emotions that will be experienced, the intensity of the emotions, and their duration. Previous studies found that people often got the valence of the emotion right, but were not as good at judging emotional intensity or duration. Typically people overestimate the intensity and duration, thus there are intensive bias and duration bias in affective forecasting. These biases can have serious consequences for the decisions people make, but they were devoid of research on the connection between affective forecasting bias and decision making. This study integrates the validation of intensive bias and duration bias in decision-making to explore the relationship between affective forecasting bias and decision-making. Methods and Procedures: Experimentation adopts the ultimatum game formulas and self-edit questionnaire to investigate 188 school students in Beijing. Each participant was assigned to the role of proposer and given a packet of materials. Instructions for proposers stated that the participant had been paired with another participant (the computer controlled person, named “Xiao Ming”), and that he or she should allocate ￥100 between himself or herself and Xiao Ming. There were 101 potential offers (in RMB Yuan units) ranging from ￥0 to ￥100. Proposers were told that responders could accept or reject the offer. If Xiao Ming accepted, the ￥100 would be divided accordingly, and if Xiao Ming rejected, both parties would receive nothing. As mentioned above, proposers completed four tasks. First, they rated their feelings of pleasure about their payoff (accepted/rejected). Responses were on a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 represented feeling extremely unhappy, 5 represented feeling extremely happy, and 3 represented feeling neither happy nor unhappy. Next, they were asked to attend the ultimatum game. Then they were told their payoff were accepted or rejected (the acceptance or rejection was randomly arranged, no integration with the offer of proposer), and rated their immediate feelings about the acceptance/rejection. Finally, ten minutes later, all participants rated their emotion about the acceptance/rejection, willingness of joining another ultimatum game, and attended the game again. Results and Conclusions: The result can help understand forecasting bias, promote decision-making ability, and improve decision-making quality. It shows that adolescents have intensity bias and duration bias when they predict the emotional response to future events. Intensity bias and duration bias influence adolescents to obviate the decision or tend toward it. On condition that the payoff was accepted, the higher the intensity bias, the more the adolescents avoid the decision. On condition that the bid was refused, the higher the intensity and duration bias, the more the adolescents tend to make a decision. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Study of Domain-specific Academic Emotions in Children SU XU 2011, 34(4): 856-862.  Abstract ( )   PDF (584KB) ( )   In this study, a variety of questionnaires were used to examine domain specificity of academic emotions in 516 sixth-graders and eighth-graders .The results showed: ①Significant subject differences of academic emotions in children were found . ② Significant gender differences and grade differences of academic emotions were found in various subjects. Boys and girls showed more positive emotions in their own advantage subjects. Sixth-graders were super in academic emotions than eighth-graders . ③In various subjects, the impact of family support on academic emotions showed relatively strong consistency. Significant positive relations were found between family support and positive academic emotions.There was a more complex mechanism of the impact of family support on negative academic emotions. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Knowledge Base on Detecting the Sementic Associations of Paired Words 2011, 34(4): 863-870.  Abstract ( )   PDF (733KB) ( )   The present study aimed to probe into the effect of individual’s knowledge base on detecting associations. Participants were 40 rich-knowledgeable and 46 less-knowledgeable people in biology domain. Experimental materials were 120 paired words, which were grouped into four based on two dimensions, biologic domain/general domain, and remote/close. There were 30 paired words in each group respectively. All words were nouns composed of two Chinese characters. Participants were asked to decide whether a paired words presented to them were associated in any ways. Repeated-Measures MANOVA revealed there was significant interaction between knowledge base and domain of paired words in percentage of acceptation. People with rich knowledge in biology domain had stronger inclinations to accept the associations of biologic paired words, and exhibited no difference in judging general paired words compared with less knowledgeable people. Analysis for RT testified that rich-knowledgeable people spent more time in judging the association of biologic remote paired words than less-knowledgeable people. Yet no differences were disclosed in processing the general domain samples. The explanation for such findings could be sought in the specificity of domain knowledge and in the spreading activation theory of semantic memory. The findings implied that knowledge base affected people’s abilities to detect remote associations in certain categories or domains, and such ability could be domain specific instead of being regarded as creator’s rigid traits. （注：这里是短摘要，长摘要见论文） Related Articles | Metrics

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A Research on the Relationship between Teachers’ Work Values and Job Performance Da JunZHANG 2011, 34(4): 871-874.  Abstract ( )   PDF (368KB) ( )   To analyze the relationship between teachers’ work values and job performance, 645 primary and secondary school teachers were tested by the Teachers’ Work Values Questionnaire (TWVQ) and Teachers’ Job Performance Scale (TJPS). Data were analyzed by SPSS17.0 program. The results indicated that teachers’ work values were significantly related to their job performance, but the correlation coefficient was lower; and altruism & devotion, security & stability and prestigious status were the predictors of task performance, job dedication and overall performance; and altruism & dedication, security & stability and interpersonal relationship dimensions were the predictors of interpersonal promotion. Teachers’ work values can predict their job performance to some extent. Related Articles | Metrics

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Coping Development in Studies of Children and Adolescents 2011, 34(4): 875-881.  Abstract ( )   PDF (680KB) ( )   From the perspective of developmental psychology, this paper summarizes related research of coping in children and adolescents and describes the theory development of coping, characteristics of coping development in children and adolescents, influencing factors on their coping. It also looks into the future of coping research. As to the coping theory, there is a picture of development from static to dynamic, from single factor to multi-factor involved, and from single dimension to multi-level models. As to the coping development in children and adolescence, it sets forth some requirements on cognitive abilities, which also establishes great links to regulation process. Considering the prospect of coping research, topics about construct of coping itself, research methods as well as mechanism of coping on individuals’ psychological development are all points that we should pay attention and give further exploration to. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Differential Effect Of The Structure of Learning Material On RI Between The Problem Student And Excellent Student hangying JIANG 2011, 34(4): 882-888.  Abstract ( )   PDF (706KB) ( )   Related Articles | Metrics

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Personality and Shyness: Examining Mediationand Moderation Effects 2011, 34(4): 889-893.  Abstract ( )   PDF (424KB) ( )   This study investigated the relationships between personality and shyness based on a sample of 752 undergraduates. Regression analyses and SEM were applied to detect the effects of personality on shyness as well as the mediating role of social support and the moderating role of coping strategies in the effects of personality. The major findings of the present study were: (1) there were significant effects of extraversion and neuroticism on shyness; (2) social support served to mediate the effects of extraversion and neuroticism on shyness; (3) self-accusation served to moderate the effect of extraversion on shyness; recourse served to moderate the effect of neuroticism on shyness, and the mediating role of social support. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Measurement of the College Students’ Time Management Tendency for Its Relationship to Value 2011, 34(4): 894-898.  Abstract ( )   PDF (469KB) ( )   time mearuament Related Articles | Metrics

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The Psychological Mechanism of Herd Behavior of Consume decision 2011, 34(4): 905-910.  Abstract ( )   PDF (587KB) ( )   The herd behavior acted by consumer is a typical phenomenon in consumption market. It refers to the behavior that consumers follow others’ decisions under the uncertain situation. This research explored the psychological mechanism of herd behavior by simulating situations of consumption. First experiment studied the way of information processing by manipulating the quality of message. The result shows that the herd behavior is on account of consumers using consensus heuristic and competence heuristic. The second experiment tested the condition that two heuristics were applicable. The result shows that when consumers face a high degree of consensus, they would like to use the consensus heuristic; but when consumers face a low degree of consensus, they would like to be in agreement of the competence heuristic. Related Articles | Metrics

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Discuss regarding Intermediary Function of Entrepreneurial Self- Efficacy 2011, 34(4): 911-914.  Abstract ( )   PDF (373KB) ( )   Abstract: In recent years, the more and more attention on research of Entrepreneurial Self- Efficacy (ESE). From the perspective of research at home and abroad, The research of ESE mostly the ESE as entrepreneurship researches of prediction variables for empirical research. The main point below: One is that ESE could predict Entrepreneurial intentions; Another ESE can predict the organizational performance after the Entrepreneurship. In the past two years, some scholars have begun to explore the factors affecting the ESE. Mueller（2008）et al. studied on Gender-role orientation in the four stages of venture tasks (searching, planning, marshaling and implementing) effect on ESE. Founded that among both males and females, Different gender-role orientation of the individual, who has different level of ESE. Kickul（2009）et al. studied the cognitive style in the four stages of venture task effect on ESE. The study founded that individuals’ cognitive preference for analysis or intuition influences their perception and assessment of their ESE in their intentions to create a new venture. This study has combed the above research, that ESE has intermediary function. The intermediary function mechanism can help people better understand ESE, Find ways of cultivating ESE, The entrepreneurial education will have greater contribution. Related Articles | Metrics

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A study on the relationship of psychological factors and non-rational financial behavior 2011, 34(4): 915-919.  Abstract ( )   PDF (476KB) ( )   This paper aims to explore the effects of psychological factors of personality type and decision-making style on non-rational financial behavior. It is committed to disclose individual differences in non-rational financial behavior caused by individual differences in personality type and decision-making style. Personality type, decision-making style and non-rational financial behavior are measured by the method of questionnaire. Significant differences are found in this study that different non-rational financial behavior are with different personality types and decision-making styles. It is also found that personality type and decision-making style have significant prediction to different non-rational financial behavior and their whole. The rational style, the spontaneous style and the dependent style in decision-making style and the sensing-intuition dichotomy of personality are significantly predictive to the total non-rational financial behavior respectively. Related Articles | Metrics

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Intentional modulation of emotional responding to fearful picture: An ERP study 2011, 34(4): 925-930.  Abstract ( )   PDF (575KB) ( )   Abstract: Background: Considerable studies have shown that intentionally altering responses to unpleasant stimuli affects physiological and hemodynamic activity associated with emotional and cognitive processing. There are two commonly used emotion regulation strategies: cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, which can reduce our subjective emotion experience and hemodynamic activity. However, there are few researches about the temporal characteristics of these two emotion regulation strategies. Based on pervious reports, t he present study hypothesized that there would be significantly decreased electrophysiological activity during cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression emotional responses beginning around 400 ms post stimulus and lasting several hundred milliseconds. Methods: In the present experiment, we measured the late-positive potential (LPP) of the visually evoked event-related brain potential to examine the effects and the differences of the two emotion regulation strategies. Fourteen participants received instructions to view, reappraise, and suppress the emotional responses to fearful stimuli. All stimuli were emotionally evocative scenes taken from Chinese affective picture system, and appraised before. Results:(1)In the terms of amplitude, comparing instructions to view, the amplitude of the LPP was decreased during instructions to cognitive reappraise and the differences were significant, while the amplitude of the LPP was decreased during instruction to expressive suppression but the differences were not significant. (2)In the terms of temporal part , the differences between instructions to cognitive reappraise and view occurred at 400ms and last to more than 600ms, while the differences between instruction to expressive suppression and view occurred at 450ms and only last to 550ms. Conclusions: the present study displayed that these two emotion regulation strategies can modulate our emotional responses. But the effect of cognitive reappraisal was earlier and more lasting than expressive suppression. These results were evidences to that cognitive reappraisal is more effective than expressive suppression, and is better for people’s physical and mental health. Key words: emotion regulation; cognitive reappraisal; expressive suppression; LPP Related Articles | Metrics

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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Neural Mechanisms and Intervention 2011, 34(4): 931-938.  Abstract ( )   PDF (823KB) ( )   Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopment disorders of childhood. Attention, working memory and executive function deficit are considered as core symptoms in cognitive model of ADHD. In recent years, researchers have expanded the cognitive model into neuropsychology and begun to consider the brain abnormality is one of the causes of ADHD. With the development of imaging technology, lots of studies have been conducted to further understand ADHD patients’ brain structural abnormalities, atypical neurodevelopment and dysfunction of brain network connectivity. Researchers used various morphological measurements to find the brain structure differences between ADHD and normal control group. Lots of brain regions have been detected, including fontal, temporal-partial cortex, anterior cingulated cortex, basal ganglia and cerebellum. Results of these studies proved that ADHD has its neural pathology. However, ADHD’s symptoms would change as patients grow up. Some symptoms could disappear as the patient grows into adolescent. Therefore, researchers assumed that ADHD is a kind of neuropsychological development delay disorder. But the clinical and follow-up studies showed that ADHD is multidimensional rather than a simple neurodevelopment disorder. Thus we need to further investigate this disorder from different perspective. Recently, researchers began to treat the human brain as a network which is composed of many nodes (brain areas). They assumed that nodes can communicate and transfer information from each other. Based on this perspective, some researchers hypothesized that ADHD is caused by dysfunction of brain network connectivity. They used lots of statistic methods to test this hypothesis, such as Seed-base Correlation Analysis, Independent Component Analysis, Regional Homogeneity and Graph theory. More and more studies in this areas support this hypothesis, especially the researches of Default Mode Network. There are two controversial views about the dysfunction of DMN in ADHD. One suggests that dysfunction of brain regions connectivity within DMN in resting-state is the main cause of the ADHD. The other view is DMN interference assumption. It suggests that DMN activity is undisturbed at rest but fails to be attenuated during the transition from rest-to-task in ADHD patients. The two views have been supported by different evidences. On the other hand, some researchers used various methods, such as white matter volume measurement and fiber tracking, to study the brain structure connectivity abnormality in ADHD. There are three main findings, including change of the whole brain white matter volume, left fontal-temporal pole and occipital-partial circuit fiber transfer capability. Taken together, these findings suggest that ADHD patients show abnormality in brain functional and structural connectivity. Based on the above three main aspects of ADHD studies, we suggest that behavioral training (such as working memory training) may be a safer way to intervene the disorder or alleviate symptoms than drug treatment. Finally, we concluded four suggestions in future study. First of all, we should classify different kinds of ADHD patients into sub group as each sub-type may link to distinct brain abnormalities. Secondly, it is necessary to combine different kinds of technologies, such as integrating longitudinal method and brain connectivity to figure out how the connectivity patterns change as the patient grows up or the symptoms develop. Thirdly, segment each related brain regions precisely and link them to the ADHD symptoms. At last, we should further compare the effect of drug treatment and behavioral training on the neuropsychological level. Hence, integrating different evidences to understand ADHD’s pathophysiologies may have implications for future anatomy-base differential diagnosis, prevention and intervention. Related Articles | Metrics

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Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy：An EmergingFunctional Neuroimaging Technology 2011, 34(4): 943-949.  Abstract ( )   PDF (681KB) ( )   For the Neuroimaging techniques such as event-related brain potentials(ERPs)，and functional magnetic resonance imaging(fMRI) are physically constraining, susceptible to motion artifacts, and expensive, these traditional neuroimaging technologies are not meet the researches on the young children, old people and disorders, cann’t be used in the ecologically setting. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy(fNIRS) is an emerging functional neuroimaging technology offering a relatively non-invasive, saft, portable, and low-cost method of indirect and direct monitoring of brain activity. Functional optical imaging capitalizes on the changing optical properties of tissues by using light in the near-infrared range (600-900nm, spectroscopy window) to measure physiological changes.fNIRS capitalizes on the changing optical properties of the oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin(oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb) by using light in the near-infrared range to measure psysiologicl changes in the brain. Typically, a functional near-infrared apparatus is comprised of a light source and a litht detector that receives the light after it has been reflected from the tissue. Three distinct types of fNIRS implementations have been developed; time domain systems, frequency domain system and continuous wave spectroscopy measurements. Continuous wave fNIRS systems(CW) is the most popular one. fNIRS has been utilized in the studies of higher cognition; developmental psychology and abnormal psychology. For the higher cognition, fNIRS has the beneficial characteristic to be applied in the natural measurement setting, such as the electronic game, driving, educational seeting and counseling enviroments. For the develpmental psychology, fNIRS have been applied to monitor the new borned child at risk and study the brain activities of infant during cognitive process, has substantially contributed to the understing of congnitive process of different ages and the neural correlates. For the abnormal psychology, a body of research with fNIRS have been applied on the Schizophrenia, Mood disorder, Epilepsy and ADHD, it has been used as alternative for the WADA, and used to monitor the oxygenated hemoglobin. Beneficial characteristics of fNIRS are non-invasive,safe,portable,and low-cost,it is limited spatial resolution,use of cranial reference points,attenuation of the light signal by extracerebral matter,difficulties obtaining absolute baseline concentrations of oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb also. fNIRS can be readily integrated with other technologies such as eyetracker, EEG and other techniques to provide multiple indices of neurological and physiological function, further studies can combine with other neuroimage technology such as fMRI; In addition, focus on the neuro-mechanism of young children and patients with neuro-psychiatric disorders;focus on the cognitvie neuroscience under the ecologically situation. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Application of the Multivariate Generalizability Theory to Psychology Entrance Test 2011, 34(4): 950-956.  Abstract ( )   PDF (511KB) ( )   Abstract 　The study applied the Multivariate GT to each of the four administration（from 2007 to 2010）of the psychology entrance test which consisted of 4 sub-disciplines and 4 item types. The results showed that 1. From the content tested view, development and education psychology and experiment psychology showed the poorer reliability than others; 2. From the item type designed view, multiple choice with multi-correct answers showed the poorer reliability than others; its reliability will be improved with increasing the number of itself and decreasing the number of multiple choice with single-correct answers; 3. The reliability of the total psychology entrance test is very good, and four forms constructed based on the table of specifications are quite “parallel” to each other. Related Articles | Metrics

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Variable weighted Item Selection Strategy for Computerized Adaptive Testing with the Generalized Partial Credit Model 2011, 34(4): 965-969.  Abstract ( )   PDF (481KB) ( )   Abstract: For dichotomous scoring , the a-stratified item selection strategy(a-STR) is an effect and safe method for computerized adaptive testing(CAT).But it could not be applied to the polytomous scoring CAT, because there are too many parameters in the polytomous item response model to be comprehensive. Some domestic researchers employed the mean, the mode or some one of the difficulties (or location parameters) to represent all of the difficulties or location parameters. In a word, the difficulty parameter in the dichotomous score item is replaced with some descriptive statistic of the difficulties or the location parameters then a-stratified item selection strategy is employed to polytomous CAT. It is well known that the information function is a good comprehension of all item parameters as well as the ability parameter. But the item selection strategy of maximum information index derogates the safe if MII is used at the early stage during the course of CAT for every examinee. Since the items with higher discrimination parameter may be frequently used and it causes the higher exposure rate for these items. A new item selection strategy named as variable-weighted item selection strategy is proposed in this paper. Some functions of the information are employed to replace the a-stratified strategy. The new item selection strategy is comprehension of all information of the item parameters for polytomous items and plays the role of a-STR. Some comparisons of the new selection strategy with the other selection strategies combined with a-stratified based on GPCM model. The results of Monte Carlo study show that the new selection strategy has the best effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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School Based Study of Comprehensive Intervention for Children with ADHD Zengqiang WU 2011, 34(4): 974-980.  Abstract ( )   PDF (725KB) ( )   Purposes: This study intends to explore the short-term and long-term effects of the comprehensive intervention to children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Methods: With the help of Children Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire and K-SADS- PL Scale, 117 ADHD children, who were chosen from 4500 children ranging from grade 2 to 4 in 10 primary schools in shanghai, were diagnosed through two circle surveys. According to their own choices, they were distributed to three groups, that is, the comprehensive intervention group, the medical therapy group and the control group. The comprehensive intervention, which had been carried out for 8 weeks on end, included the behavior modification and self-management, which was undertaken once a week, the group game consultation which was done thirty minutes a time, once a week, the parents training which was held in the form of Salon, thirty minutes a time, once a week and, when necessary, the medical therapy. School psychological consultants, clinical psychologists, teachers and parents were involved in the intervention program. Pretest-posttest design was used to test the short-term and long-term effects(6 months later) of the comprehensive intervention to children in terms of the hyperactivity symptom, the behavior and emotional problems, the difficulty in daily life, the level of adaptive behavior and self-esteem. Results: The result of this research showed that the comprehensive intervention group of children with ADHD had more effectively improved (p<.05) the hyperactivity symptom, reduced the difficulty faced by the children tested in daily life, bettered their adaptive behaviors, and highly enhanced the level of their self-esteem only in a short-term effect. Through the form of the parents training salon, the parents increased the knowledge of ADHD, knew the methods to help their child in daily life, and the score of ADHD Questionnaire was raised (p<.05), and could last for a long period of time, which means the degree of coordination from parents was effectively improved. The short-term and long-term effects of the comprehensive intervention were different among the three types of children with ADHD and between children with only ADHD and children combined with Learning Disorder (LD). The attention type and mixed type of the children tested could be increased (p<.05) in some aspects of the short and long term effects, but those with the hyperactivity type couldn’t get any improvements. The children with simplex ADHD had better short-term effects in more areas (p<.05). But children combined with LD could improve continually with the raising of academic score, and had better long-term effects. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Structure of Working Alliance: A Test Based on Two Measurements 2011, 34(4): 981-986.  Abstract ( )   PDF (572KB) ( )   The structures and psychometric properties of WAI-S and WAI-SR, two widely used measures of alliance in therapy, were examined in university counseling center clients. The Goal and Task alliance dimensions were hardly differentiated, rs = 0.71 and 0.74 in WAI-S and WAI-SR respectively. The one-, two-, and three-factor structure models of WAI-S and WAI-SR were not supported with confirmatory factor analysis. WAI-SR was not significantly correlated with outcome. The hypothesized structures of WAI-S and WAI-SR were not confirmed, indicating the need for further refinements of the measurements and a reassessment of Bordin’s (1979) working alliance theory. Related Articles | Metrics

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Anxiety Sensitivity and Sleep Quality in Young Students: The Relationship and its Internal Mechanism 2011, 34(4): 987-992.  Abstract ( )   PDF (512KB) ( )   To investigate the relationship between Anxiety Sensitivity（AS）and sleep quality and its internal mechanism, the authors firstly revised the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (3rd ed.) for Chinese college students (ASI-3-C) and then used ASI-3-C, Anxiety Sensitivity Questionnaire (ASQ) and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) to measure 1176 secondary school students and 607 college students. Means Comparing showed that the sleep quality of the higher AS group was worse than the lower AS group in both kinds of samples (6.91± 3.18 VS 4.79 ±2.99, t=5.62, p<0.001; 5.60± 5.87 VS 3.60 ±1.85, t=9.15, p<0.001). Furthermore, Correlation Analysis indicated that the total scores of AS and its factors (fear of mental incapacitation, fear of social evaluation and physiological arousal) significantly correlated with the total scores of PSQI in secondary school students, and their correlation coefficients were respectively 0.31, 0.23, 0.24, and 0.23 (ESs ranging from 0.23～0.32). These significant correlations also appeared in the college students, and the correlation coefficients were respectively 0.43，0.38，0.38，and 0.31 (ESs ranging from 0.32～0.46). The average effect sizes of these correlations between secondary school students and college students were respectively 0.39, 0.32, 0.32, and 0.28 (>0.25)，which indicated that the correlations had realistic significance. Path Analysis and Multiple Group Comparison based on Structural Equation Model (SEM) were used to investigate the predictive effect of AS on sleep quality in young students. The results showed that AS could positively predict PSQI in both kinds of samples, or, PSQI would be worse when AS level got higher(?=0.35，0.78；SE=0.07，0.11，ps<0.001）. The results also showed that pattern model of relationship between AS and sleep quality was similar in both age group samples, while both their factor loading invariance and the loadings in the path from AS to sleep quality were significantly different(?=0.24, 0.62；SE=0.04, 0.07, ps<0.001). The same results appeared in higher AS group and lower AS group of both secondary school students and college students. The pattern model of relationship between AS and sleep quality in higher AS group was as same as that in lower AS group, while both their factor loading invariance and the loadings in the path from AS to sleep quality were significantly different. In lower AS group students, AS had a non-significant prediction effect on PSQI, nevertheless, in higher AS group students, AS had a significantly positive prediction effect on PSQI. The study showed that it was possible that AS amplified the feelings and responses of negative emotions by virtue of the sensitive traits and automatic cognitive appraisal, and thereby it influenced the sleep quality ultimately. Anxiety sensitivity was an inner inducing factor of anxiety disorder and an inner causing factor of sleep problem as well. In this study, we used several statistic techniques such as Effect Size Analysis, Path Analysis and Multiple Group Comparison and so on, which filled the data gap of relationship between sleep and AS in young students and furthermore made its internal mechanism clear. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Creative Self-efficacy on Creativity under Pressure Contexts 2011, 34(4): 993-998.  Abstract ( )   PDF (508KB) ( )   The aim of this study is to explore the effect of creative self-efficacy (a very important component of personality) on different aspects of creativity under time pressure, competence pressure and evaluation pressure. Data were collected from 216 students among 3 classes in a middle school. The main results of the study are as follows: The effects of pressure on total creativity were, competence- enhanced, evaluation- decreased, time-no significant effect. Specifically, time pressure mainly enhanced fluency; evaluation pressure mainly enhanced originality; competence pressure enhanced both; the three pressure contexts all decreased flexibility significantly. There are significant differences on the change of flexibility among students with different creative self-efficacy under pressure contexts. Namely, students with middle score on creative self-efficacy have the least decline and those with lowest score on creative self-efficacy have the most. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Dilemma of Dualism and the Rising of Embodied Cognition Programme Hao-sheng YE 2011, 34(4): 999-1005.  Abstract ( )   PDF (712KB) ( )   Abstract Until recently, psychology’ knowledge about mind-body relationship has been restricted by dualism which regards mind and body as two separable entities. In the history of human thought, however, a lots of thoughtful scholars such as Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty has criticized dualism and put forward that the mind and body are in effect an integrated whole. Recently, Theories of embodied cognition are beginning to spread considerably in psychology and other cognitive sciences. Embodied cognition programme (ECP) take into account situational conditions, bodily states and sensory–motor simulation in the formation of cognitive processes. This brand-new viewpoints of embodied cognition hold that cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body's interactions with the world. Cognition takes place not only in central system, but in the perceptual and motor systems and extended into environment. The categories we use to describe and explain the objective world have their origins in spatial and physical experience. Therefore, we should understand cognition in its direct interaction with the environment. The view that cognition is embodied means: (a) cognition is shaped by the physical attribute of our body. The abstract thought and complex emotional experiences are based on bodily and neuro-structure. Cognition is constrained by the specific kind of body we possess, and (b) there is a strong causal relationship between the nature of our sensory organs and motor functions , and our cognitive functioning. Our concepts are processed in close interaction with sensory-motor systems, and the cognitive representations are fundamentally grounded in brain’s modality-specific systems. (c) the cognition is grounded in brain, the brain in body, and body in environment. The mind extends beyond the boundaries of skull and skin into the world beyond. ECP has provided systematic evidences which have demonstrated the impossibility of the mind-body dualism, theoretically and experimentally. ECP emphasizes mind’s dependences on body and puts forward a holism of mind-body relationship. It shows that there will be no mental activity if there are no bodily structure and functioning. Human mind such as memory, thinking, emotion and personality can not be separated from the physical state of body and sensory-motor mechanism. ECP is rapidly gaining prominence in the world of cognitive science. At first, the discussion of embodied cognition was only a metaphysical thinking in phi Related Articles | Metrics

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On the Phenomenological Turn in William James’s Psychology and Its Theoretical Signifcance Shen-Chun GAO 2011, 34(4): 1006-1011.  Abstract ( )   PDF (657KB) ( )   By explaining the natural science point of departure in the psychology of William James and examining the process of his investigations and breakthroughs, the paper argues that there is no doubt a fundamental turnabout in James’s psychological thinking. By further comparison with Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology, it points out that the potential theoretical significance of James’s psychological thinking can only be expressed and developed by borrowing from Husserl’s phenomenology his theoretical framework and conceptual instruments. The conclusion of the paper suggests the phenomenological turn in James’s psychological thinking greatly helps to understand psychology’s disciplinary identity and its theoretical reconstruction. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Science of Consciousness on Integrating Experience and Brain ——A Review on Varela’s Neurophenomenology CHEN Wei 2011, 34(4): 1012-1016.  Abstract ( )   PDF (496KB) ( )   One of the major challenges facing science of consciousness today is to provide an explanatory framework that accounts for both the subjectivity and neurobiology of consciousness, which is triggered by the difficult problem of consciousness. According to Varela’s neurophenomenology, conscious expericences are the products emerging from the activity of large-scale neural assemblies in brain, and neural phase synchronization is one of its forms. Subjectivity determines that the study of consciousness must integrate first person- and third person methods, so as to enable the relationship between subjective- and objective datas to become a reciprocal constraint. Related Articles | Metrics

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Comment on the Paper of Western Psychology Major Journal in the 5 Five Years 2011, 34(4): 1017-1023.  Abstract ( )   PDF (592KB) ( )   Abstract: The paper, based on the analysis of the three authoritative international journals psychological bulletin, psychological review and Annual review of psychology from 2005 to 2009, from research field, topic and citation rate to explore the development of psychological research. It concludes that including basic /experimental psychology and social psychology and health psychology are still the popular subjects, but research method and technique have changed. Cognition, Learning & Memory, Decision making and Emotional health are hotly researched. The paper also suggested that the Chinese researchers of psychology should: (1) strengthen their study methods and statistical skills; (2) focus their study on native situation. (3) cross-disciplinary, multi-level integration of research; (4) Expansion of research topics Related Articles | Metrics