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    20 September 2012, Volume 35 Issue 5 Previous Issue    Next Issue

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    Different Tasks and Frequency Impact on the Emotional Valence Effect of Chinese Character
    Ning Fan
    2012, 35(5): 1026-1030. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  

    Affective (positive or negative) information of emotion word is able to accelerate the word’s processing compared with the neutral word. Several researches revealed that the emotional valence effect occurs under either conscious or subliminal conditions. However, if the emotional valence effect is an automatic procedure or an interactive outcome between task paradigm and stimulus property is unclear now. The present study used semantic and phonological tasks to explore the influence of frequency to emotional valence effect when reading Chinese characters. After normalization, two experiments applied the same stimuli sets of Chinese characters which had been strictly matched among their frequency, strokes number, radical number, concrete level and emotional arousal level in all 6 conditions. Experiment 1 used semantic category decision task, 2 (high frequency vs. low frequency) × 3 (negative/neutral/positive) within subjects design. Participants were 30 college students, but 1 subjects was excluded because his total error rate was too high (>10%). They were asked to decide whether the target Chinese character was living being (e.g. tiger, horse, grass) or not by pressing keyboard button. Different from semantic processing, Experiment 2 applied rhyming decision task. Another 30 college students participated in this task. They made responses according to the target characters’ pronunciation. If the syllable contained /ong/ (e.g. /song4/, /qiong2/, /nong2/) then press “yes” button, otherwise press “no”. Besides that, two experiments shared the same design, stimuli and program. Computer automatically recorded subject’s reaction time and error rate by E-prime1.1 software. The MANOVA results showed that when participants were asked to perform the semantic task the negative valence accelerated the characters' semantic access in both high and low frequency conditions (ps<.05). There was not significant interaction between frequency and emotional valence (p>.05). At the same time, the positive valence speeded up the low-frequency characters only (p<.05), but not on the high-frequency ones (p>.05). The influence of positive valence was weaker than negative valence. However, there was significant interaction between emotional valence and frequency in the phonological task (p<.001). Simple effect exam showed that emotional valence mainly impacted on the low-frequency characters' phonological access (p<.001), and didn’t affect on the high-frequency ones (p>.05). In the low-frequency condition, the RTs of negative (p<.01) and positive (p<.001) characters were shorter than neutral ones. The integration of two experiments supports the biased competition model. In summary, the results suggest that the emotional information modulate the semantic and phonological access during reading characters. Moreover, the modulation effect is influenced by the task-oriented and familiarity of material. Emotional valence can accelerate the low-frequency characters’ phonological and semantic access, but not the high-frequency characters’ phonological access. However, in semantic task, even the high-frequency characters’ processing can be affected by negative valence.

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    The influence of processing speed on syntactic processing in late second language learners
    2012, 35(5): 1031-1038. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    The present study presents two experiments that investigated the influence of sentence presentation speed on English syntactic processing of late Chinese-English learners in order to test L2 processing speed on the influence L2 syntactic processing. In Experiment 1, sentences were displayed word by word with two different speeds in visual presentation. One condition was fast speed of presentation, that is to say, each word was presented for 250ms; the other was slow speed of presentation, that presentation time for each word was 500ms. Sixty university students participated to read these sentences, thirty in each group. In Experiment 2, participants were instructed to listen to sentences with normal and rapid speed in auditory way. The rapid speed of reading is 1.5 times as normal. Fifty-two university students participated, twenty-six in each group. There were 8 different forms of syntactic structure, including article, regular and irregular past tense, regular and irregular plurals, third person singular, present progressive and word order. All the sentences of 8 different forms of syntactic structure were divided into two forms: one is right and the other is wrong forms. Grammatical judgment task was used. The results of two experiments indicated that sentence presentation speed played a critical role in L2 syntactic processing. Specifically speaking, eight different forms of syntactic structure were all influenced by speed of sentence presentation, the faster sentences displayed, the worse syntactic processing was performed. The difference of processing difficulty exists among different syntactic structures: it’s easier for present progressive to process, whereas much harder for article and irregular plurals. These results provided the evidence that processing speed is an important factor to influence L2 syntactic processing.
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    The Spatiotemporal Features of Self-Referential Processing:Evidence of ERPs
    2012, 35(5): 1039-1046. 
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    Based on previous studies, this study used event-related potential to investigate the self-referential processing under the case of context. The characteristics at different levels of self-reference processing and its neural mechanisms under situational conditions To extend the results of the previous studies and discuss more profoundly, we designed the experiment to which added the individual self-referential and collective self-referential stimuli, and compared the processing course with each other. In experiment, we used the lexical decision task, and took the characteristic adjectives as individual self-referential and collective self-referential stimuli. To investigate the characteristics of the two self-referential processing, the researchers also took the situation into consideration, and placed the individual self-referential processing and collective self-referential processing in different situations. In experiment, we used the decision task, in company with unrelated individualism music and collectivism music as background, three characteristic adjectives as target stimulus, which is totally six types of stimuli. In experiment, we discover that under the two musical conditions, P300 amplitude evoked by individual self-referential stimuli is larger than the collective self-referential stimuli, and the collective self-referential stimuli are larger than non-self stimuli. Under the two musical conditions, P300 amplitude evoked by the individual self-referential stimuli is significantly different, and the collective self-referential stimuli triggered are no significantly different. Compared with the self-related effects or self-referential effect that has been demonstrated on previous studies, this study used electrophysiological methods to verify the existence of self-referential effect. It proved that individual self-referential stimuli are processed better than collective self-referential stimuli and non-self-referential stimuli. The results show that the collective self is similar with the well-known individual self, and is a very important psychological component of human. Compared with collective self-referential stimuli, individual self-referential stimuli is significantly different. In a different situation, compared with collective self-referential processing, individual self-referential processing is more different and more vulnerable to emotional interference, and shows the characteristics of instability. The neural mechanisms of individual and collective self-referential processing is different. The former is based on the right hemisphere and the latter on the left hemisphere. These results also may indicate that compared with the collective self, individual self is the core aspect of self.
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    The Mechanisms of Autonomic Nervous Activity of Positive Emotions Speed Recovery from the Cardiovascular Reactivity
    2012, 35(5): 1047-1053. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    The results of existing studies showed that positive emotions sped from the cardiovascular aftereffects of negative emotions. But the existing studies provided evidences not enough for this recovery effects. Especially, what is the mechanism of autonomic nervous activity for the recovery effects? Few studdies focused on it. So this study aims to reexamine the effects that positive emotions speed from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions and explore the mechanism of the autonomic nervous acitivity underlying it. In the experiment, after 180 seconds baseline period, participants were asked to view an emotionally evocative film that induced fear, immediately following fear arousal, participants were randomly assigned to view an emotionally evocative videoes that induced amusement, sadness, or neutrality for 120 seconds, then kept relaxing state for 120 seconds. 96 participants recruited from college students attended the experiment. The results of experiment indicated that: compared to participants who viewed the neutral and sad secondary videoes, those who viewed the positive film exhibited more rapid returns to pre-film levels of cardiovascular activation. Moreover, compared to participants who viewed the neutral and sad secondary videoes, those who viewed the positive film exhibited stronger vagal activation in recovery periods. Positve emotion sped recovery from cardiovascular response of negative emotions, and the mechanism of the autonomic nervous acitivity underlying it was that stronger vagal activation was generated in the state of positive emotion.
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    The Text Repetition Effects How to Influent the Text Reading
    2012, 35(5): 1054-1059. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    Text reading is one of the most complex and unique cognitive activities of human people and is also an important way for us to get information. An interesting phenomenon which is called repetition effect or reading benefit is that when a word or text is read twice, reading time generally decreases during the second occurrence,and it occurs because memory for the first occurrence facilitates reprocessing during the second occurrence.Because repetition effects provide a sensitive, implicit measure of the content and structure of memory, much research has been devoted to understanding the source of text repetition effects. In the present study,three experiment explored the levels of text representation that mediate text repetition effects in Chinese, following the Raney's context dependent continuum model. Participants read a set of short passages, each twice in succession.Experiment 1 examined whether there had repetition benefits in reading. The results showed that there have repetition benefits in reading, and people tend to naming a title to the text. In Experiment 2 , four passages' sentences were disrupted to form a bad situation model.The magnitude of the repetition benefit supported predictions of Raney’s model, indicating that the ease of forming a situation model contributed to the magnitude of the reprocessing benefit. In addition, representations organized around a good situation model were more sensitive to changes than were representations formed from reading without a good situation model. Two new factors were added to Experiment 3:paired related passages and interval condition.The results of experiment 3 did not support the suggestion that the surface form and textbase are bound to a well-developed situation model, thereby limiting repetition effects to similar linguistic contexts. Rather, the nature of the repetition benefits in the present series of experiments are better explained by the degree of overlap between passages at each of the three levels of text representation. The findings of this study suggests that there is a repetition benefits in Chinese reading,and a good situation model is an important factor in producing the repetition benefits.Overall, the experiments reported here suggest that Raney’s model can make a substantial contribution to explanations of how texts are represented in memory and how these representations can be recruited to the services of increased reading fluency.The result of experiment 3 is not totally in line with Raney's context-dependent representation model,and we think abstract and episodic accounts are also key factors affecting text reading.The results of these experiments provide preliminary support for the idea that the degree of overlap at each level of representation determines how much of a repetition benefit there is between passages.But understanding the source of text repetition effects still needs further investigation.
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    The effect of working memory load on involuntary attention
    2012, 35(5): 1060-1064. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    Many studies addressed the interaction between working memory (WM) and selective attention. However, these studies mostly concerned with the voluntary or endogenous mechanisms of selective attention and little is known about the relationship between WM and involuntary attention. Moreover, by investigating the relationship between WM and involuntary attention, we could get a deeper understanding of the cognitive control mechanism of WM. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine how WM impact involuntary attention by manipulating the WM load. Meanwhile, in order to examine the load theory of selective attention, we adopted verbal WM task and spatial position discrimination task to avoid the competition of perceptual attentional resource between WM and selective attention. The spatial position discrimination task demanded participants to discriminate the position (left versus right) of a dot presented in a square. In half of these trials, visual distraction produced by a “pop-out” red Korean presented from one of the four side of the square. In the verbal WM task, a numeric string of 3-digits, 5-digits or 7-digits (low, middle and high WM load conditions, respectively) was presented in random order and participants had to remember the order for report at the end of each trial. Participants made signi?cantly more recall errors in the high and middle WM load conditions than in the low WM load condition, demonstrating that the verbal WM load manipulation had been effective. Repeated-measures analyses of variance (ANOVA) for mean RTs of spatial position discrimination task showed that distraction effect was influenced by WM load: the distraction effect was significant under high WM load condition; however, it was not significant under low and middle WM load conditions. This indicated that the cognitive control resources was consumed by high load on WM and resulted in a failure of suppression of distraction, so the distraction effect was significant; while in the low and middle WM load conditions, subjects could assign resource to suppress the processing of distracters, so there was no distraction effect. This result supported the load theory of selective attention: load on WM would reduce the available resources for cognitive control and result in increased distractor processing.
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    Eye Movement Study on Picture-Word Interference in a Delayed Naming Task
    2012, 35(5): 1065-1070. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    At present, there are two accounts of the semantic interference effect in picture-word interference paradigm , which are lexical selection by competition and response exclusion hypothesis .The main difference between them is that the former suggests that semantic interference occurs in lexical phase while the latter accuses that it takes place in the post-lexical phase. Janssen et al(2008)created delayed naming task, in which the presentation of the picture preceded the presentation of the distractor word by 1,000ms , and until the distractor word was present participants could name the picture or read aloud the distractor word depending on the color of the distractor word . Their findings showed that there was semantic interference effect but not frequency effect in delayed naming condition. As a result, Janssen et al(2008)concluded that the semantic interference effect arose at a post-lexical level of processing, not at lexical level. The purpose of the current study was to explore whether the processing in the delayed naming mixed up lexicalization processing rather than a pure post-lexical level of processing. On the basis of the Janssen et al(2008)delayed naming paradigm, The current experiment changed the picture-word superimposed presentation to separation presentation , in which distractors were presented below the pictures, and made use of eye movement technology to investigate the effects in the delayed naming task. The results of the experiment were found: (1) there existed semantic interference effect and frequency effect in the reaction time; (2) compared with the filler item condition in which the distractor words were read aloud , the rate of fixation returning from distractor word to picture was more and the fixation time of picture before named was longer in the delayed picture naming condition ; (3) In the delayed picture naming condition, the fixation time of picture before naming was not only longer in the semantic related condition than in the semantic unrelated condition, but also longer in the low-frequency picture name than in the high-frequency picture name. Thus it can be seen that the delayed naming approach did not guarantee that the information processing completely happened at a post-lexical stage, namely, at a response output stage and it perhaps mixed up lexicalization stage. From the relation of fixation time with semantic interference effect and frequency effect, semantic interference effect maybe arose at the level of lexical selection rather than at a post-lexical level of processing in the delayed naming condition, so the lexical selection by competition hypothesis was supported.
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    Research on Superiority of Distinguishing Music Tempo Changes
    2012, 35(5): 1071-1076. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    Processing the music rhythm and tempo is based on time perception, which contains the processing of time duration, time interval, rhythmic pattern and grouping. In the studies of time duration, we have found an interesting phenomenon called Time Order Error (Woodrow, 1951; Allan & Gibbon, 1994; Schab & Crowder, 1988), which said people have some biases on distinguishing the duration when it is less than 500ms or more than 700ms, and when the time duration is between 500ms and 700ms, there is no perceptible difference. Later, some researchers found a similar phenomenon in the studies of time interval, when the time interval is less than 500ms, people will estimate accelerated tempo changes more accurately, when the time interval is more than 700ms, people will estimate slowdown tempo changes more accurately. When the time interval is between 500ms and 700ms, various investigations indicated different views on this issue. This work was aimed to investigate whether people have perceptual bias when the time interval is 600ms (tempo 100bpm). 600ms is said to be the most natural interval in music (Fraisse, 1982; Krumhansl, 2000), but few experiments are based on this interval. In addition, there is no relevant study on the issue whether meter types (such as duple and triple meter) will affect people’s judgment on the beat ahead or behind. So this paper also attempted to explore the impact of tempo changes by certain factors such as change variety, change direction, meter type as well as different music learning background. This experiment chose two drum beats as downbeat and upbeat, to perform duple and triple meter sequences respectively. In each trail there were three standard bars before the variable beat, the variable beat will put ahead or delay for 15%, 10%, 8%, 5 %, 2% or arrive on time. Participants who were music and non-music college students were divided into two groups, according to whether he or she had more than 10 years learning for music. The two groups were asked to listen to each trail carefully and make the choice whether the last beat came early, delayed, or on time. There were 96 trails for both duple and triple meter. The experiment have shown that people are more sensitive when they feel the advance beat than the delayed beat, and this superiority showed especially obvious in triple meter. Furthermore, music students performed better than non-music students in both accuracy and reaction time, especially obvious in triple meter. It can be inferred that people distinguish accurately speed-up tempo changes compared to slowdown tempo changes, and professional music training experiences may help on improving people’s ability of judging tempo changes, and this effect acts more obviously in triple meter.
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    The Role of Working Memory in Situation Awareness of Visual Monitoring Task
    Ya-Qiang FU
    2012, 35(5): 1077-1082. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    There always has been a focus on helping operators deal with the situations in which they find themselves in the 50 years of human factors research. An important construct that continues this tradition is situation awareness (SA). Working memory and long-term memory seems at first blush to be a critical component of SA. Typically, in the human-machine system of visual monitoring, operator has several tasks at hand, some of which are in interrupted state while others are being carried out. There is evidence that some individuals develop better SA than others. The differences among individuals are attributed to the difference in the underlying cognitive processes that constitute SA. This study aims to reveal the memory process involved in the maintenance of SA in simulating visual monitoring task and disclose the relationship between memory process and SA difference among subjects. There are two alternative accounts both used to explain memory process in interrupted activities. The first is long-term working memory theory (LTWM). The second is template theory (TT). This study tested those ideas by creating very demanding interruption conditions that would hamper maintenance of pointer and other representations in short-term working memory over the interruption. A task of conflict detection with cockpit display of traffic information was simulated. Two experiments were performed to investigate the effect of interruption on situation awareness in conflict detection task. The independent variables of the two experiments were complexity of interruption task and subject experience (skilled subjects and novice subjects). The dependent variable is situation awareness. In experiment 1, the interruption task of mental rotation was adopted. In experiment 2, the interruption task of multiplication verification was adopted. The results of the two experiments showed that the interruption tasks had no effect on situation awareness of skilled subjects, regardless of the complexity of interruption tasks. Meanwhile, the situation awareness of novice subject deteriorated when the conflict task was interrupted by mental rotation task and multiplication verification task. The situation awareness of skilled subject was higher than novice subjects under each experimental treatment.
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    The influence of affective congruency between target and context during encoding on memory retrieval
    2012, 35(5): 1083-1090. 
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    Abstract: Emotion has important influence on memory. People usually remember better for emotional stimuli than for neutral stimuli. In previous researches, effects of emotional arousal and valence of targets on memory were discussed in detail. However, so far few researches investigate the influence of the emotional relationship between target and context on memory. Therefore, the purpose of the current research was to examine whether and how affective congruency between target and context during encoding impact on memory retrieval by employing affective priming and learning-recognition paradigms and event-related potential (ERP) measurement. Sixteen right-handed undergraduate students participated in the experiment. The stimuli consisted of 600 ordinary emotional pictures (300 positive and 300 negative pictures) as targets during encoding or retrieval and 240 facial emotional pictures (80 positive faces, 80 negative faces, and 80 neutral faces) as primes during encoding. Among prime pictures, 60 pictures were used twice. The experiment was divided into five blocks, each of which comprised encoding, distracting, and retrieval. In encoding phase, each trial began with a fixation point. Following the fixation, a prime picture was presented for 200 ms, and was replace by black screen for 50 ms. A target picture was then displayed for 1500ms. Participants were asked to judge the pleasantness of the target. Having finished the study phase, participants executed a 60s distracter task. In retrieval phase, each trial also began with a fixation point. A target picture was then presented for 250 ms followed by black screen for 2000 ms. Participants were required to press a button as soon as possible to indicate whether the pictures were presented in previous study phase. EEG was recorded from 64 scalp electrodes using an electrode cap. Behavioral results indicated that accuracy rates of recognition for target pictures that were encoded under congruent priming condition (e.g., positive-positive) were significantly higher than under incongruent priming condition (e.g., negative-positive) and neutral priming condition (e.g., neutral-positive) (ps<0.05). However, affective congruency between prime and target didn’t significantly impact on response times (p>0.05). ERP results from retrieval phase revealed, during 300-500ms after target onset, ERPs evoked by negative targets from congruently priming conditions were significantly more positive than from neutral priming conditions (p<0.05). In addition, ERPs evoked by positive targets from congruently priming conditions were significantly more positive than from incongruently priming conditions (p<0.05) during 550-700ms. These results suggest that the context being consistent affectively with targets improves the processing for targets, resulting in high accuracy rate of recognition and more positive ERP in memory retrieval.
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    OMPARISON OF PARENT- CHILD COMMUNICATION OF STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT ACADEMIC STATUSES
    2012, 35(5): 1091-1095. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  
    Previous literature has indicated that parent-child communication, e.g. parents’ communication ability, and the quality or style of the communication, potentially brought children different statuses in academic achievement. However, there was not a clear distinction among these different levels or aspects of the communication in the existing research, which might lead to confusions of findings. Therefore, in the present study, we adopted a comprehensive Three-Level Model of Parent-Child Communication as a framework to measure and compare the parent-child communication of high, middle and low achieving students. In the model, the family is regarded as a system consisting of all family members, their relations and the interaction of the relations. Concretely the model describes the parent-child communication on the following three levels: (1) component-level, measuring the communication ability of each family member, such as father, mother, and child; (2) relationship-level, examining the quality of dyadic communication occurred between father and child or mother and child; (3) system-level, emphasizing the relationship of mother-child and father-child communications. A “parent-child communication scale” designed to measure the above three levels was applied in the present study to examine the parent-child communication of students with high, middle and low achievements. The result showed that: (1) high-achieving students’ communication abilities in terms of initiative, clarity and sensitivity were better than those of low-achieving students; high-achieving students’ fathers were also excel low-achieving students’ fathers in the clarity and openness of communication; (2) high-achieving students owned a higher level than low-achieving students in the quality of both relationship-oriented and problem-solving-oriented communication with their parents; (3) for high-achieving students, their mothers’ and fathers’ statuses were balanced in communication with children, and the two dyadic communications performed a consistent function to children, while they were neither balanced nor consistent for low-achieving students. In sum, there were significant differences in communication abilities, the quality of parent-child communication, and the relationship (balance and consistency) of the two dyadic communications between the high- and low-achieving students. Lastly, the differences were discussed under the framework of the Three-Level Model of Parent-Child Communication.
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    The Influence of Self-Determination Motivation on Test Anxiety: Procrastinations as a Different Mediator
    Qian Tian Shi-Chang DENG Jia Guo
    2012, 35(5): 1096-1101. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  

    About half of the Chinese college students suffered from test anxiety. Two components of test anxiety have been defined by Liebert and Morris (1967): worry and emotionality. Worry was typically referred to as the cognitive component of test anxiety, as it reflects the debilitating thoughts and concerns the test-taker has before or during the test, and emotionality refers to the physiological symptoms stemming from arousal of the autonomic nervous system and associated affective responses. Previous studies have demonstrated that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which were 2 types of self-determination motivation, have no significant correlation with the 2 components of test anxiety. However, there was no study reported the relationship between test anxiety and amotivation, which were another type of self-determination motivation. So, with the findings from previous studies, the present study investigates how worry and emotionality were influenced by amotivation by the different mediate role of procrastination of arousal / avoidance types. Six hundred and twenty four college students (329 males, 263 females, 32 unknown) from 7 universities in 3 provinces were surveyed in the unit of class. Test anxiety was measured by Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI), self-determination motivation was measured by the Academic Motivation Scale College Version (AMS-C), arousal and avoidance procrastination were measured by the Lay’s General Procrastination Scale for Student Populations (GPs) and the Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP) respectively. All data was processed by Amos 7.0. The analysis of correlation shows that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation have no significant cor-relation with worry, furthermore, the correlation between intrinsic motivation and emotionality was less than 0.2, so was the correlation between extrinsic motivation and emotionality. This was consistent with previous findings. However, amotivation was positively related to both worry and emotionality significantly: the correlation between amotivation and worry was .47 (p<.001) and .39 (p<.001) with emotionality. Arousal procrastination were positive related to both worry (r=.43, p <.001) and emotionality (r=.41, p <.001) significantly, so was the avoidance pro-crastination (r=.60, p <.001, with worry, r=.52, p <.001, with emotionality). Further analysis by SEM showed that amotivation has direct influenced on the 2 components of test anxiety (worry and emotionality)

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    The crosswise comparison on the metamemory monitorings researches
    2012, 35(5): 1102-1106. 
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    The metamemory monitoring plays a critical role in the memory activity, conducting the learners to study efficially. It contains EOL(ease of learning),FOK(feeling of knowing),JOL(judge of learning) and JOC(judge of confidence), which is a continuous process. This paper views the metamemory monitoring as a unitary process and makes a crosswise comparison with the research model, cognitive mechanisms and neural mechanisms of its indigrediences, including EOL, FOK, JOL and JOC. The current major research paradigms were systematically listed. Besides the traditional research model for each one, PRAM(Pre-judgment recall and monitoring) and second-order judgment for JOL, and game-show for FOK were reviewed. several major cognitive theory hypothesis were merged, including trace access mechanism for FOK and direct access hypothesis for JOL hypothesis which based on the strength of the target information, inferential mechanism for FOK and cue-familiarity hypothesison for JOL and FOK, which based on the strength of related information of the target, accessibility model and competition hypothesis for JOL and FOK which based on the total amount of information extracted, dual-process hypothesis for FOK which based on the seperation of FOK and FOnK, and the types of clues Perceived. Compared the neural activations in FOK,JOL and JOC, activations in ventral medial prefrontal cortex were associated with currect FOK and JOL, while activations in medial and lateral parietal regions were associated with JOC; However, compared with recognitive tasks, the neural activity related to metamemory is characterized by a shift from externally directed cognition, towards internally directed cognition. All these above explained the same and different aspects from the perspective of the neural mechanism. In the end, the evolution and dynamic research was summarized in metamemory monitoring fields. Several aspects are being expected to study. For one, it's difficult to draw a perfect conclution if only study in the respective recogintion mechanisms isolated from others, and a commom frame is needed to discuss the different recognition mechanisms. For another, it’s necessary to compare the recognition mechanisms and neural mechanisms in the same time in order to make a correspondence. The third, it’s more meaningful to study metamemory monitoring thoughout lifespan and during different culture. And finally, the apply study on how to improve the accuracy of metamemory ,such as spaced study, interactive imagery and so on is also valuable.

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    The Embodiment of Social Cognition
    Ruian Wang
    2012, 35(5): 1107-1112. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  

    For decades, the reigning paradigm of cognitive science has been classicism. Psychologists depict the interaction between human and environment mainly on the basis of model of information processing. In other words, the classical cognitivists (CC) believe cognition can be calculated. CC claims that mental operations are largely detached from the working of the body, the body being merely an out put device for commands generated by abstract symbols in the mind. While these classical beliefs are contradicted by embodied cognitivism (EC). EC argues that our body (including the brain) is also involved in cognitive activities and plays an important role. As the classical cognitive science has some problems can’t be solved, like complex cognitive activities involved emotion, subjective experience, then, embodiment, the most significant character of the embodied cognitive science, has been prevalent among the researches and has got the evidence from neuron science. Mirror neurons are reckoned as the essence of empathy and mimicry of expression, as the experiments from monkey and human being per se. Furthermore, they can arouse emotion reactivation during and after experiencing one situation. With the developing of embodied researches, the researchers found that even the position of our body or the movement of our head do influence our cognitive activities, like evaluation, memory, speed of words sorting, etc. Though the scholars who boast embodied cognition argued that whether social cognition is embodied, there have been a lot of studies in embodied social cognition and achieved some revolutionary results. These approaches are mainly about three fields: attitude, social perception and emotion. However, the approaches above which are mainly focused on body mimicry can’t be the crucial evidence to demonstrate the embodiment of social cognition. Then the scholars have to define what kind of social cognitive activities can be counted into the embodiment, like person recognition, personality perception, social beliefs, social mechanisms, mindreading, social attitudes, social interaction. A few studies about mindreading and communication with embodied methods give us premising results. EC has been widely accepted in schools, while, to promote future development of the EC approach, scholars still need to answer the following questions. First, which interpretation of embodiment do they have in mind? Second, which sectors of cognition, or which cognitive activities, do they say are embodied; and how fully does each task involve embodiment? Third, how does the empirical evidence support the specific embodiment claims under the selected interpretations? Fourth, how do the proffered claims depart substantially from CC?

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    Media and Cognitive Development of Infants
    2012, 35(5): 1113-1118. 
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    Media plays an important role in infants and children’s leisure time. The increase in the amount of time that infants spend exposing to media, such as television, internet and DVD, has prompted more concern among parents and researchers. Firstly, infant’s media using was introduced and positive and negative effects of television on the development of infants were reviewed. Secondly, the relationship between the media and the cognitive development of infants in attention and responsiveness, vocabulary and word learning and learning between 2D to 3D were also reviewed. Finally, suggestions for further research were discussed in the end, such as the definition of the media and television viewing, television content and form and the new technique etc.

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    The Effect of Social Negative Environment on Problem Behavior of Unattended and Migrated Children: Parent-Child Relationship and Peer Relationship as moderators
    2012, 35(5): 1119-1125. 
    Abstract ( )   PDF  

    Unattended children and migrated children are unique phenomenon in China. As development of Chinese economy, a lot of farmers come to city and ask for jobs. Some peasant-worker’s children who follow their parents enter into cities become “migrated children”; some peasant-worker’s children who still stay at hometown and were left with their relatives were called “unattended children”. Because living environments of unattended and migrated children are worse than those of ordinary children, problem behavior of unattended children and migrated children attracts much more attention. Previous research discussed separately the situation of problem of unattended children or migrated children, however, few researches focus on the difference of the situation of problem behavior and its effect mechanism between the two groups of children, so this study was used to make up this drawback. To achieve this purpose, a questionnaire was administered to 4279 migrated children, unattended children and ordinary rural children from Beijing, Shanxi and Henan province. First, MANOVA was used to discuss the characteristic of grade and gender of the three groups of children. Second, MANOVA was used to discuss the differences of the social negative environment, parent-child relationships, teacher-student relationship and peer relationship among the three groups of children. At last, the three kinds of personal relationships as moderators were used to examine the moderating effect of social negative environment on problem behavior for the three groups of children by SEM. The findings suggested that (1) mild problem behavior of migrated children from elementary school are worse than those of unattended children and ordinary children; serve problem behavior of migrated and unattended children from elementary school are worse than those of ordinary children; mild problem behavior of migrated children from secondary school are worse than those of unattended children whose mild problem behavior are worse than those of ordinary children; (2) parent-child relationship, teacher-student relationship and social negative environment of unattended children and ordinary children are better than those of migrated children; (3) parent-child relationship and peer relationship can moderate the prediction of social negative environment on problem behavior of migrated and ordinary children; peer relationship can moderate the prediction of social environment on problem behavior of unattended and ordinary children. Finally, the present research discussed the characteristic of problem behavior of unattended and migrated children and the difference of personal relationship and social negative environment among the three groups of children. Importantly, though discussing the mediated effect of social negative environment on problem behavior, the three kinds of personal relationship can be used to decrease the passive effect of social negative environment. Specifically, ordinary children can use parent-child relationship and peer relationship to relieve the passive effect of social negative environment on problem behavior; unattended children can use peer relationship to alleviate the negative effect of social negative environment and parent-child relationship can be used to ease the negative effect by migrated children.

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    Does the Testing Effect depend on process or content
    dingjing Xiping Liu
    2012, 35(5): 1126-1130. 
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    Retrival practice can enhance later retention more than additional study when review the material, this is the testing effect. The current research adopted low-related noun word pairs as the material in order to discuss the mechanism of the testing effect:Whether the testing effect depends on the process or the content? Experiment 1 used 2(review conditions:test, restudy)×3(testing intervals:5min, 2day and 1week)design to explore the interval of the testing effect. We needed to find a right interval for the testing effect because what we wanted to make sure is that the testing effect would depend on the process of test or the content during testing. The review conditions was between-subjects factor, the testing intervals was the within-subjects factor. The results: the testing effect did not appear under the 5min and 2day conditions, but it appeared under the 1week interval. It was visible that 1week was the most sensitive testing interval. According to the results of the Experiment 1, Experiment 2 was carried out under the 1week interval to find that the testing effect depends on he process or the content. Used 2(review conditions:test, restudy)×3(testing condition:A→B、A←B)design , and these two factors were both between-subjects, we studied the mechanism of testing effect. What we hypothesized was: If the testing effect depends on the content, the testing effect should be different under the “A→B” and “A←B” testing conditions; If the testing effect depends on the process, the testing effect should have no difference under the “A→B” and “A←B” testing conditions. The results of this experiment were: there is no difference of testing effect between the condition of “A→B” and “A←B”. That meant the testing effect depends on the process. The conclusions of this study are: the proper interval of the testing effect for the 11 years old participants is 1week; under this study condition,the testing effect depends on the process, not the content. Using ‘A→B’and ‘A←B’ ways during retrieving is an effective way to separate the process depended of testing effect from content depended.

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    The Immediate Processing Eye Movement Characteristics on Moral-situational Pictures of Primary School Children
    2012, 35(5): 1131-1136. 
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    eye movement; moral-situational pictures; moral emotion; immediate processing

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    the relation between counterfactual thinking and regret: regulatory mode as a moderator
    2012, 35(5): 1137-1143. 
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    The previous studies have indicated that the amount of counterfactual thinking impacts regret in the direction that the more counterfactual thinking the more regret, because regret involves reflect on one’s responsibility in the previous decision. From this perspective, regret could be interpretated as the result of counterfactual thinking. However, there is some evidence that the relation between counterfactual thinking and regret is moderated by some variables, such as the distance between performance and goal. On the other hand, it was suggested that regulatory mode may have important influence on regret. For example, people regret more in the action situation than in the non-action situation; however, this effect is stronger for the high-locomotion individuals than high-assessment individuals. In further, counterfactual thinking includes different types such as additive counterfactual thinking and subtractive counterfactual thinking, and regulatory focus involve situational regulatory mode and chronic regulatory mode. So, the present study probes to examine: whether the relation between counterfactual thinking and regret is influenced by regulatory mode taking the different types of counterfactual thinking into account, and whether there is any difference between chronic regulatory mode and situational regulatory mode on their influence upon relation between counterfactual thinking and regret. The hypnosis is as following: for both chronic and situational regulatory mode, assessment mode is related to subtractive counterfactual thinking, while locomotion mode is related to additive counterfactual thinking; regulatory mode (chronic or situational) is an moderator between counterfactual thinking and regret, to be in details, under locomotion mode, the more additive counterfactual thinking the more regret, the more subtractive counterfactual thinking the less regret; while under assessment mode, the more subtractive counterfactual thinking the more regret, the more additive counterfactual thinking the less regret. There are two experiments in this study which respectively probes into the relation among chronic or situational regulatory mode with counterfactual thinking and regret. In experiment 1, chronic regulatory mode, counterfactual thinking, and regret were measured among 57 college students. In experiment 2, situational regulatory mode was induced, and then counterfactual thinking and regret were measured among 90 college students. Based on the results of t-test, correlation analysis, and regression analysis, it is indicated that: 1) Subtractive counterfactual thinking has stable positive correlation with regret, additive counterfactual thinking is stably uncorrelated with regret, while the correlation between general counterfactual thinking and regret is unstable; 2) regardless of chronic or situational regulatory mode, evaluation mode is related with subtractive counterfactual thinking, while locomotion mode is related with additive counterfactual thinking; 3) Both chronic regulatory mode and situational regulatory mode could moderate the relation between counterfactual thinking and regret, to be in details, according to chronic regulatory mode, for the evaluative individuals, the more additive counterfactual thinking the more regret, according to chronic regulatory mode, when evaluation mode is induced, the more additive counterfactual thinking the more regret, while when locomotion mode is induced, the more additive counterfactual thinking the less regret. The findings are beneficial to understand the relation between counterfactual thinking and regret and the influence of regulatory mode on the relation, as well as the difference between chronic regulatory mode and situational regulatory mode.

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    Inhibition control in Attentional orienting of different Competence bilingualism children
    jiao jiang-li Yonghui Wang
    2012, 35(5): 1144-1148. 
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    Purposes: Posner divided the attentional process into three compositions: alerting; orienting; exective control. Then Costa founded “bilingual effect” in all the compositions except orienting. We founded that there is an inhibition composition in orienting that they neglected. It is “Inhibition of rentrn, abbreviated IOR.So this research we want to use the paradigm of IOR to discuss if the bilingual effect occurred on the composition of orienting, and if this effect occurred depended on the skilled difference of language two. Procedures and Method: We designed the experiment by 3×2×2.The first variable is the type of subjects refers to 15 balance bilingual children, 16 unbalance bilingual children and 17singual children. The second variable is SOA refers to 400ms and 650ms.The third variable is location refers to cue and target at the same location or different location. The experiment concluded four conditions, every condition have 20 trials. All the 80 trials appeared random and no three trails were the same. All the subjects have a practice before the formal experiment. They can not begin if the practice error rate was higher than 5%.In the experiment, the fixation was presented 200ms; and then the peripheral cue was presented 200ms; and then central cue was presented 100ms; and then the cue presented 100ms or 350ms in order to control the SOA; after all the target was presented at the peripheral location random. The work of subjects is press the key of space when the target was appeared. Response time and error rate was recorded by the software of DMDX. Results: One unbalance bilingual children and one singual child were rejected because of their practice rate was still higher than 5%. Then repose time was analyzed by repeated measures of ANOVA. The results showed: the main effect was significant, F (1, 42) =37.03, P<0.05.The interaction effect of SOA and location was significant F (1, 42) =109.81, P<0.05. There was no main effect and interaction effect on error rate. More analyses was founded that IOR appeared when SOA was 600ms, but not appeared on 400ms.The difference effect of IOR was significant between balance bilingual children and signal children. There is no significant difference between other types of children. Conclusions: (1) Bilingual study promotes the development of inhibition control, especially in the orienting compositions. (2)Whether bilingual study promotes inhibition control depend on the compence of language two.

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    Content Structure of Shared Leadership for Knowledge Employees
    2012, 35(5): 1149-1153. 
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    Shared leadership is a dynamic and interactive groups, the process of effect in this process devastates according to the mission by its corresponding characteristics of expertise of the team members perform leadership functions, and dynamics according to situation leadership role in order to realize the alternating teams and organizations goals. This study adopts methods of document analysis, personal interview, questionnaire and other method in order to make content structure of knowledge employee shared leadership, which includes seventeen items. Firstly, we use document analysis, open questionnaire, personal interview and team interview form an original questionnaire, which has 36 items. Then using the random sampling method, we pick 600 knowledge employees accepting test. There are 447 valid questionnaires. This survey we mainly use exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and model competition methods. EFA of a date from a sample of 224 knowledge employees showed that knowledge employee shared leadership containing team spirit, team cooperation, shared responsibility and team expect four dimensions of 17 items. Every item in the corresponding load on its dimension from .504 to .879.The total variance contribution rate is 63.650%. Alpha coefficients of these four dimensions are .652, .797, .830 and .811.The total alpha coefficient is .853.CFA of a date from a sample of 223 knowledge employees further confirmed knowledge employee shared leadership factorial validity by LISEREL 8.70, We can say that the knowledge employee shared leadership questionnaire can be used as a tool in the further study.

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    The Relationship between Ethical Evaluation and Ethical Decision-Making in the Business
    2012, 35(5): 1154-1158. 
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    The Impact of Transfer of UT-Knowledge on Unconscious-Thought Effect
    2012, 35(5): 1159-1163. 
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    From the perspective of knowledge transfer, this research makes up for the weaknesses made by Bos et al.(2008) who ignored the effect of internal factors on unconscious thought. This study suggests that the unconscious thought is both unconscious thought knowledge-dependent and external goal-dependent. There are two experiments to demonstrate this. Experiment 1 investigated whether unconscious thought is knowledge-dependent. 96 participants were assigned to two groups randomly, a group with knowledge-learning (participants who need to learn Dijksterhuis’s unconscious thought theory) and a group without knowledge-learning. Then, all participants should complete a car decision task in one of three thought conditions: immediate decision condition, conscious thought condition, and unconscious thought condition. We compared the different scores between conditions using a 2(knowledge-dependence: yes, no)×3(thought conditions: immediate decision, conscious thought, unconscious thought) analysis of variance.The results showed that (1) the interaction between knowledge-dependence and thought conditions was significant, F(2,84)=3.44, p< .05. (2) A simple effect of knowledge-dependence in unconscious thought condition (F(1,84)=11.79, p= .001) and conscious thought condition (F(1,84)=5.38, p< .05) was found significantly. In the condition of unconscious thought, participants with knowledge-learning (M=15.80, SD=2.18) performed better than participants without knowledge-learning (M=8.40, SD=5.37, p< .05); in the condition of conscious thought, participants with knowledge-learning (M=9.87, SD=5.93) also performed better than participants without knowledge-learning (M=4.87, SD=9.35), p< .05. (3)A simple effect of thought conditions in knowledge-learning(F(2,84)=11.03, p= .000) was found significantly. In the condition of knowledge-learning, participants who thought unconsciously(M=15.80, SD=2.18) performed better than participants who thought consciously(M=9.87, SD=5.93, p< .05) and participants who decided immediately(M=5.73, SD=5.85, p< .001), and the latter two did not differ significantly(p> .05). Experiment 2 investigated whether unconscious thought was double-directional in both knowledge and goal. 60 participants were assigned to a group with knowledge-learning and a group without knowledge-learning at random, then they were asked to achieve a car-roommate decison task. In this task, participants were either told that they would later be asked questions about the cars or they would later be asked questions about the roommates. At last, all particaipants should rate the cars and roommates. We compared the different scores between conditions using a 2(knowledge-dependence: yes, no)×2(goal-dependence: yes, no) analysis of variance. The results showed that (1) the interaction between knowledge-dependence and goal-dependence was significant, F(1,58)=5.92, p< .05. (2) the simple effect of knowledge-dependence in goal-dependence condition was significant, F(1,58)=10.03, p< .01. When they had a task goal, participants who learned unconscious thought theory (M=12.53, SD=5.36) performed better than participants who didn't learn (M=8.33, SD=4.09), p< .01. (3) the simple effect of goal-dependence in knowledge-learning condition was significant, F(1,58)=9.79, p< .01. In the condition of knowledge-learning, participants who had the goal to think unconsciously (M=12.53, SD=5.36) performed better than participants who didn't have the goal (M=8.63, SD=4.09), p< .01. All results of two experiments have demonstrated that unconscious thought is dependent on both unconscious thought knowledge and goal.

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    Eliciting Effects on Shy Individuals’ Inclination of Withdrawal Behaviors by Social Cues
    2012, 35(5): 1164-1168. 
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    Shyness as a social cognitive phenomenon is closely related to social contexts. Earlier research on shyness based on clinical observation and questionnaire assessment however had been limited to the description of static behavior characteristics of shy individuals, largely ignoring how these characteristics dynamically adjust withdrawal behaviors of the crowd. This study explored the impact of different social cues upon shy individuals’ inclination of social behaviors from a socio-cognitive perspective. A sample of 89 high-shy individuals and 84 low-shy individuals was chosen as experimental subjects, and effects of social cues on their inclination of social behaviors were examined by checking different face cues under the cue-exposure research paradigm. Results indicated that as compared with neutral face-traits, angry ones significantly elicited high-shy individuals’ inclination of retreatment while happy ones facilitated high-shy individuals’ inclination of social behaviors. Empirical evidence was provided to explain the characteristics of social disorder of high shy individuals in this study.

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    Impact of Leadership Style by the Gender Role Orientationof Female Entrepreneurs
    2012, 35(5): 1169-1174. 
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    The objective of this research is to explore how gender role clarification influences female entrepreneurs’ leadership style. Early research thinks that the leadership style of females have different of males, females is more effective than males. Subsequent research finds that sex has no significant relation with leadership style. However, gender role orientation has impact on leadership style. The past research targets contain both males and females, whom are mainly MBA trainees and senior managers of business. The targets of this research are just female entrepreneurs. The objective is to discuss the characteristics of the gender role orientation of female entrepreneurs and whether these characteristics have impact on leadership style. The research targets are female entrepreneurs. Questionnaires are sent out in following ways. First is through the female entrepreneurs of one university EMBA trainees. Second is through the female entrepreneurs known by me or introduced by my friends or relations. Third is through the female entrepreneurs whose children are under the class sponsors of two primary schools in Zhejiang Province. Finally I get 225 effective questionnaires. The research uses Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI, of which both the male inventory and the female one have 20 items) and The Leader Behavior Deseription Questionnaire (LBDQ) used by HemPhin & Coon (Ohio university ). The result showed that over 30% of them were androgyny, 21% were masculinity, only 22% were femininity. 64.4% female entrepreneurs employed achievement-orientation style (high initiatingstructure, high conseration). The results also showed that gender orientation had significant difference on leadership style, and bigender employed high initiatingstructure, high conseration style, and femininity people employed high conseration style, and masculinity employed high initiatingstructure. Some characteristics of masculinity, such as competition, strength and autonomy, and some ones of femininity, such as friendship and empathy influenced leadership style positively significant, and femininity had stronger influence.

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    A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Work-related Variable: The Sample of Chinese Respondents
    Hui-Hua ZHANG
    2012, 35(5): 1175-1184. 
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    The psychological mechanism of gratitude – a behavioral study
    2012, 35(5): 1185-1189. 
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    The measurement of off-line metacognitive regulation and its application to personnel selection
    Jian LI Yiming LI
    2012, 35(5): 1190-1195. 
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    The higher level processes such as monitoring and controlling cognitive behavior have been pervasively emphasized and metacognitive regulation has been regarded as one of the hot-points of contemporary psychological studies in recent years. Metacognitive regulation is generally recognized to be an advance cognitive mechanism, which exert huge impact on cognitive effectiveness. Researches on metacognitive regulation have important implications for theoretical development and practice. Metacognitive regulation is such a supreme ability that researchers want to distinguish individuals by their regulation levels. However, its conceptual structure is still under discussion. Nelson and Narens suggested that metacognitive regulation was composed of monitoring and control processes interactively, while Yeager split metacognitive regulation into another two parts, named (a) Prediction and Planning, and (b) Study Techniques and Their Control. Both theories sound reasonable, but not convincible. According to the object, area and time of regulation, we decomposed metacognitive regulation into two components: on-line regulation and off-line regulation. On-line regulation happens in the performance of a certain task, including monitoring and control of the problem solving processes. Whereas off-line regulation takes place out of a certain task situation, reflecting individual’s self-regulation, planning and re-evaluation of his behaviors on a global level. The purpose of the present study was to explore the psychometric structure of off-line metacognitive regulation, and to develop an assessing instrument with high criterion-related validity. The data of this study were collected from a large-scale IT company in Beijing. In study 1, 226 employees participated the preliminary test. By using a self-developed questionnaire, a three-factor structure of off-line metacognitive regulation was obtained, which included global-planning, awareness and generalization. After a retest study with 115 participants, the structure of off-line metacognitive regulation was confirmed. In study 2, hierarchical linear regression and hierarchical logistic regression were conducted to examine the criterion-related validity of the off-line regulation questionnaire. The results showed that managers were different from common staffs in particular regulation factors. Managers have higher generalizing level than others in sales departments, while managers in support department have higher awareness level than others. But on the other hand, for the common staffs, the level of off-line metacognitive regulation failed to predict employees’ performance in sales department. However, for the staffs in support department, the level of global-planning predicted the creative activities reversely. Based on the results, we may suggest that the off-line metacognitive regulation questionnaire has good psychometric quality, and the procedures of administrating and scoring are objective and standardized. It can be applied to practice such as personnel selection and promotion.

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    Gender differences in the relationship between rumination and forgiveness
    2012, 35(5): 1196-1201. 
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    The authors investigated the associations between rumination and forgiveness in male and female respectively. One hundred and twenty-seven college students (88F and 39M) completed self-report measures of rumination and forgiveness. Results showed that there were no apparent gender differences in rumination and forgiveness; rumination was associated with forgiveness in women-but not in men.

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    The Moderate Effect of Responsibility Attribution on the Relationship between Justice and Affective Commitment
    Yong-Fang LIU
    2012, 35(5): 1202-1206. 
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    Based on employee samples from some companies of Shanghai, This paper used survey and hierarchical regression analysis to explore the moderate effect of responsibility attribution on the relationship between justice and affective commitment. The results indicated that:(1) responsibility attribution as a moderator between organization interpersonal justice, organization informational justice and organization affective commitment; (2) responsibility attribution as a moderator between supervisor procedural justice, interpersonal justice, informational justice and supervisor affective commitment.

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    A happy person is prone to feeling justice?A quantitative research of affectivity and organizational justice perceptions
    2012, 35(5): 1207-1212. 
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    Research interest in relationship between affect/affectivity and organizational justice has grown substantially in recently years. The affect’s role in perception of organizational justice has received much attention. From an organizational psychology perspective, affect is conceptualized as two bipolar dimensions (i.e., factors), namely positive and negative affects. The trait affect is expressed by the tendency to see things in positive or negative ways. People with high positive affectivity tend to perceive things through “pink lens” while people with high negative affectivity tend to perceive things with “black lens”. As an important perception in organizations, would organizational justice be influenced by person’s affectivity? This study explored the direct and indirect influences of affectivity on organizational justice and overall justice. According to Affect Infusion Model, affectively loaded information exerted an influence on and becomes incorporated into the judgmental process, entering into the judge's deliberations and eventually coloring the judgmental outcome. Furthermore, as Affective Events Theory expressed, one’s emotion and mood influence job performance and job satisfaction. Three hypotheses were put forward based on the affect infusion model and affective events theory. H1: Trait positive affect will have a significant positive effect on justice judgment. H2: Trait negative affect will have a significant negative effect on justice judgment. H3: Trait affect and job characteristic will have a significant interactive effect on justice judgment. Among the major measures, four scales were used including the 20-items PANA scale designed by Wason & Tellegen (1988),organizational justice scale from Colquitt (2001), perceived overall justice scale from Maureen & Marshall(2009)and job content questionnaire adopted from Karasek et.al (1998). In total, 260 employees in 9 organizations from a big city in eastern China were sampled. Most of the participants were coming from public sectors with a mean tenure of 9.8 years. Correlation analysis and moderated multiple regression were employed to analyze the data. Results show that (1) trait affect showed significant main effects on organizational justice and perceived overall justice after controlling job requirement and job demands. (2) when we introduced the interaction terms of job characteristic and trait positive affect into the regression, the explanation of the equation was not been enhanced. (3) but the interaction effect of job characteristic and trait negative affect on perceived overall justice was significant. In sum, the study explored the role of trait affect on organizational justice and perceived overall justice. Results obtained from analyses indicated that positive trait affect and negative trait affect might have the different functions on organizational justice and perceived overall justice. Positive trait affect leads to organizational justice more directly, but people with negative trait affect tend to consider the work environment more carefully when making justice judgment. This study also had some implications for organizations and the society. For instance, managers should not only carry out emotional management, but also make great efforts to set up a transparent and unbiased environment.

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    Estimating the Confidence Interval of Composite Reliability of a Multidimensional Test Using Delta Method
    Zhong-Lin WEN
    2012, 35(5): 1213-1217. 
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    Reliability is very important in evaluating the quality of a test. Based on confirmatory factor analysis, composite reliability is a well index to estimate the test reliability for general applications. As is well known, point estimate contains limited information about a population parameter and could not give how far it could be from the population parameter. The confidence interval of the parameter could provide more information. In evaluating the quality of a test, the confidence interval of composite reliability has received more attention in recent years. There are three approaches to estimate the confidence interval of composite reliability of a unidimensional test: Bootstrap method, Delta method and directly using the standard error of a software output (e.g., LISREL). Bootstrap method provides an empirical result of the standard error and is the most credible, but it needs data simulation technique and its computation process is rather complex. Delta method computes the standard error of composite reliability by approximate calculation, and it is simpler than Bootstrap method. LISREL software can directly give the standard error, and it is the simplest among the three methods. By simulation study, it has been found that the interval estimates that obtained by Delta method and Bootstrap method were almost the same, whereas the results obtained by LISREL software and by Bootstrap method were large different (Ye & Wen, 2011). They recommended Delta method when estimating the confidence interval of composite reliability of a unidimensional test, because Delta method is simpler than Bootstrap method. There was few research to study how to compute the confidence interval of composite reliability of a multidimensional test. We deduced a formula by using Delta method for computing the standard error of composite reliability of a multidimensional test. Based on the standard error, the confidence interval can be obtained easily. We used an example of a multidimensional test to illustrate how to calculate composite reliability and its confidence interval by using the proposed Delta method. We also illustrated how to get the same result with Mplus software that automatically calculates the stand error with Delta method and presents the confidence interval.

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    Re-explore into Psychometric Exploring of Face-audience Communication Apprehension Scale for Chinese College Students
    2012, 35(5): 1218-1224. 
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    Owing to the limitations of the previous study Psychometric Exploring of Face-audience Communication Apprehension Scale for Chinese College Students, a new scale was formed after insightful rethinking and elaborate redesign. Following the rules of psychometrics, firstly a pre-survey scale with 79 items was made and with which 1,200 students (50 ones in each university) from 24 universities chosen randomly from 17 provinces or municipalities of China like Beijing, Shanghai, Sichuan, Guangdong, etc. were surveyed. Then among 1,057 valid samples obtained in pre-survey, 529 ones distributed in the odd numb group were put into the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and the rest into the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). It is suggested that the latest (revised in October, 2011) Chinese College Students’ Face-audience Communication Apprehension Scale, with four dimensions (platform apprehension, interview apprehension ,affairs-handling apprehension, group-within and outside-campus communication apprehension) and 32 items involved, has more extensive aspects about Face-audience Communication Apprehension of Chinese College Students as well as high reliability and validity in accordance with the demands of psychometrics. This scale can be formally used as a survey instrument to measure the magnitude of Chinese college students’ Face-audience Communication Apprehension. Key words: face-audience Communication Apprehension, platform apprehension, interview apprehension, affairs-handling apprehension, group-within and outside-campus communication apprehension, College students

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    The effect and value of Person-fit Statistics in Personality Questionnaire
    2012, 35(5): 1225-1232. 
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    Person-fit statistics (PFS) refers to the consistency of either an individual’s response pattern within a given measurement model or other examinees’ response patterns within a given sample. If we can distinguish the aberrant item score patterns, the test score should be more interpretable, and, consequently, the reliability and validity should be heightened. However, nowadays most of the researches in person-fit statistics have been concentrating on ability tests and computer adaptive tests instead of personality questionnaires. The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of person-fit statistics in the reliability, inner structure validity, and the criterion-related validity of personality questionnaire. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) was used in the present study. Firstly, we removed L scale and got the positively and negatively worded EPQ questionnaire for the same group of participants. Then, we merged all the items and conducted the exploratory factor analysis, and removed the items whose load was less than 0.3. Finally, we selected E and N subscales for the study. We chose the number of items, where response vector in positively worded items was unequal to that in the negatively worded items (called unequal index Y), as the criterion of estimating the person-fit statistics. Eight person-fit statistics (G, C, MCI, U3, U, W, ECI6, and L) were chosen to investigate influences to the reliability and validity of the tests, and to analyze the correlation between the person-fit statistics and unequal index. Then the effectiveness of PFS in personality questionnaire was investigated and the power of the eight person-fit statistics was compared. As shown in the results, the reliability was increased after deleting 5%, 10%, and 20% aberrant individuals. The reliability of the half of the good-fit participants was more significant than that of the bad-fit participants. L, C, and G were more sensitive to reliability than other PFS. The results were similar for E scale and N scale. Although the criterion-related validity didn’t steadily increase after deleting 5%, 10%, and 20% aberrant individuals, the criterion-related validity of good-fit participants were more significant than that of the bad-fit participants. All of the PFS showed significantly effect to the inner structure validity. L displayed an obvious and stable effect to the inner structure validity. The eight PFS had different correlation levels with Y, and the correlation coefficient among L, G, and Y was the highest one. Therefore, these results suggest that PFS can rectify the reliability and validity. In other words, PFS is suitable to personality tests and L based on IRT is the most ideal one.

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    The Method of Plausible Value for Group-level Estimation with Multiple Matrix Sampling
    2012, 35(5): 1233-1239. 
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    Competency Model Development and Validation for University Faculty
    2012, 35(5): 1240-1246. 
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    The purpose of this research was to develop and validate a competency model for university faculty. Firstly, the competency model for university faculty was developed through integrating Behavioral Event Interview (BEI) with O*NET job analysis. Using O*NET job analysis tools, the authors investigated 405 college teachers in another study and built the preliminary competency code dictionary (including 31 competencies). Following the classical BEI method, this study interviewed 24 college teachers (15 outstanding teachers and 9 ordinary ones). According to the code dictionary mentioned above, 210 thousand Chinese characters were clarified and coded by two PhD candidates who majored in psychometrics. Then this study did the comparison of the average competency ranks of college teachers with different performances by T-test with SPSS16.0. The competency model (narrow-sense competency model) for college faculty included 8 competencies: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Teaching Strategies, Concentration, Social Service Orientation, Analytical Thinking, Achievement, and Respect for Others, among which the former 4 competencies were significant at .05 level whereas the latter 4 were significant at .10 level. Secondly, to validate the expert validity of the competency model, this study interviewed 5 Subject Matter Experts (SEMs). Through Focus Group Interview (FGI), the experts agreed that the significant level should be set at the .10 level which would be more in line with the reality. The experts also considered other competencies such as Reflection, Active Learning, Care Students, Team Leadership and et al. as important competencies for college faculty. So when the “self-evaluated competency questionnaire for university faculty” was constructed and the construct validity of the scale was validated, both the differentiating competencies and the threshold competencies were included in the scale. There were 796 college teachers took part in the survey, half of the data was randomly selected for the exploratory factor analysis and the other half for confirmatory factor analysis. The results indicated that the scale (same as the generalized competency model) could be reduced into three factors as Creativity Orientation, Achievement Orientation, and People Orientation. The coefficientα’s for the three factors were .89, .91, and .86 respectively. The confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the three-factor model. Furthermore, to validate the concurrent construct validity of the competency model, this research sampled 8 colleges and obtained 183 teachers’ performance level and competency level scores from their supervisors’ evaluation. The results confirmed that outstanding teachers received higher competency level scores than ordinary teachers, the same as ordinary teachers than inferior teachers. This research indicated that it was feasible to integrate structured job analysis with BEI when developing competency model and the questionnaire constructed had good reliability and validity which could be used for faculty competency evaluation.

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    Statistic Control of the Method Effects Associated with Item Wording: the Chinese Version of Life Orientation Test-Revised as an Example
    2012, 35(5): 1247-1253. 
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    When developing a self-report instrument, negatively worded items were often included in a questionnaire with positively worded items to prevent response biases, such as acquiescence, affirmation, and agreement bias. Yet this strategy might interfere with examinations of the latent structure of self-report instruments and the relations with other psychological constructs. As a result, a new response bias occured, which was caused by the difference between the positively item wording and negatively item wording, so researchers named it as the method effect associated with item wording. Taking the Chinese version of Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) as an example, this study aims to explore whether the method effects associated with item wording exist in the Chinese version personality rating scales and whether they are influenced by the perfectionism and social desirability. Both CTCM (Correlated-Trait Correlated-Method) and CTCU (Correlated-Trait Correlated-Uniqueness) methods are used in model building and testing. A questionnaire including the Revised Life Orientation Test(LOT-R), the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS) and the Common Social desirability Scale (CSDS) is administered to 334 college students. The results show (1) that the method effects associated with item wording do exist in the Chinese version of LOT-R and they are reflected in the negatively worded items. (2) that when the method effects associated with negatively worded items are separated from the trait effects, there is only the optimism factor left in the Chinese version of LOT-R, which indicates that optimism and pessimism belong to the same personality trait instead of two different ones. (3) that the method effects associated with negatively worded items are negatively and significantly correlated with two dimensions of the perfectionism, namely the concern over mistakes and the parental expectations, but not with social desirability. Most importantly, this study finds that the method effects associated with negatively worded items can be interpreted as the Langage Labeling Effect (LLE). When you are asked, “ are you very short?” (the negatively worded item), you may feel that you are labeled as short, negative and inactive,then you may unconsciously be unpleasant. In the contrary, this Langage Labeling Effect won’t exist in the positively worded items, for example, when you are asked, “ are you very tall?” (the positively worded item), you won’t feel that you are labeled as tall, positive and active. So our understanding of the positively worded items is more realistic and neutral. The implications of this study are as follows: when developing psychological scales, the agreement bias, disagreement bias and the method effects associated with negatively worded items should be taken into account at the same time. One feasible method may be that the negatively worded items could be interpreted as filler items, but not included in the total scores. In addition, to study the essence of the personality structure, it’s necessary to separate the method effects associated with negatively worded items from the trait effects. Finally, the asymmetry of the Langage Labeling Effect is worthy of further study.

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    The Relation between Neuroticism and Life Satisfaction: The Chain Type Mediating Effect of Affect and Self-Esteem
    2012, 35(5): 1254-1260. 
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    The results showed: (1) Neuroticism is positively related to negative affect, but negatively correlated with positive affect, self-esteem and life satisfaction. (2) Positive and negative affect were the full mediators between neuroticism and self-esteem. Self-esteem was the full mediator between positive and negative affect and life satisfaction. (3) Neuroticism couldn’t affect life satisfaction directly, only indirectly affected life satisfaction through two mediation chains. One was the positive affect-self-esteem mediation chain, the other was the negative affect-self-esteem mediation chain. Both absolute and incremental fit indices indicated that this chain type mediation model had a good fit to data. And, all latent variable variances and factor loadings were highly significant. These findings highlight the complex nature of association between neuroticism and life satisfaction. Neuroticism indirectly affects life satisfaction through the positive affect-self-esteem mediation chain and the negative affect-self-esteem mediation chain, but can’t directly affect life satisfaction. This study provides new and further evidence that neuroticism is associated with a number of negative life outcomes, including less happy, more aversive mood, poor self-esteem, low levels of life satisfaction.

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    Categories of Counselors’ Verbal Responses during the First Counseling Session
    2012, 35(5): 1261-1266. 
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    Abstract The current research aimed to explore the categories of counselors’ verbal responses during the first counseling session, especially the characteristics of the counselors’ verbal responses under Chinese culture. Procedures and Methods: The research was a qualitative study based on the discovery-oriented psychotherapy research developed by Mahrer(1992). The researchers collected first-session videotapes of 4 counselors at a university counseling service. All counselors were female and got their master degrees in counseling psychology. The mean age of the four counselors was 28 years old, with a ranged from 24.5 to 31.5, and their counseling experience ranged from 2.5 to 5.5 years. Clients were freshmen and sophomore (3 males and 1 female). In this study, researchers conducted category analysis to make an exploration. Prior to categorizing, typed transcriptions of the four sessions were divided into 241 response units. After coding these response units, researchers got 25 concept categories. Based on their functions, natures and used conditions, the concept categories were classified into four core categories, which was a classification and coding system of counselors' verbal response in Chinese culture constructed by this research. In addition, each session was split into three parts according to the time (the initial 15 minutes, middle 20 minutes and the last 15 minutes), then researchers analyzed the changes of four counselors' verbal responses in different parts of the first counseling sessions. The results: (1) Based on the function and effects of counselors’ verbal responses in the first counseling sessions, four main counselors’ verbal response categories were summerized, setting response, listening response, follow-up response, and affecting response. (2) The four core categories of counselors’ verbal response included 25 subtypes, such as greeting/thanks, setting, empowerment, listening, encouragement, paraphrase, reflection of feeling, regular summarizing, focusing, immediacy, self-disclosure, guidance, concreteness, clarification, reinforcement, confrontation, explanation, positive connotation, advice, instruction, homework, providing information, affecting summarizing, invitation, and transfer. (3) All of the four counselors used the four categories of verbal responses during the first counseling session, but different in quantity and frequency. Compared to the fourth counselor, the most response of the other three counselors is listening responses in the initial 15 minutes of first-session. While, as time went on, the frequencies of listening responses from the first, the third, and the fourth counselors were reduced, and affecting response were increased. On the contrary, the second counselor used more listening responses during the whole counseling process. Conclusions: Continued to use the effective listening response skill was helpful to build counseling relationship, and provided subsequent counseling opportunities. However, the overuse of affecting response was more likely to result in loss of clients after the first counseling session. Therefore, counselors should be cautious when using affecting responses. . It was worth to note that there were no absolutely good or bad responses among all the types, but how counselors used them effectively was more important. The innovative points of the current research: firstly, it is the first publication to present categories of counselors’ verbal responses in China. Secondly, the categories of counselors’ verbal responses got in this research are based on the function and effect of verbal responses. Especially, it yet considers the Chinese culture. Finally, researchers propose some advises to counselors on how to properly use verbal responses to maintain and enhance counseling relationship, as well as acquire satisfied psychotherapy outcome.

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    Adler Psychological Therapy Link with the Spirit of Contemporary Psychotherapy Integration
    2012, 35(5): 1267-1271. 
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    It can be concluded that the psychological therapy of Adler is such a comprehensive theory that it could pass the test of time. He performed a pragmatic conceptualization processing on human behavior, and changed procedures which integrated many valuable opinions in the contemporary psychotherapy theory. Adler’ psychotherapy is closely related with contemporary practice, because Adler’s therapy is a kind of present - and - future oriented, time-limited or short-ranged, integrative and eclectic psychological method.

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    The Theoretical Value of Cognitive Neuroscience
    huo yongquan
    2012, 35(5): 1272-1279. 
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    In recent years, more and more researches are being conducted on cognitive neuroscience, and with its widening popularity people become to know more and more about it. Currently, cognitive neuroscience possesses significance in the area of Psychology. As a discipline of it has come into being, the discussions about cognitive neuroscience become heated. It has received both praises and criticisms. Optimistic psychologists believe that people can "read" the human mental activity and reveal the secrets of mind "black box" via the methods and technology of cognitive neuroscience. Some scholars of our country have predicted that optimistically: In many years, cognitive neuroscience will lead the research direction and even the future of psychology. While at the same time, opponents, among whom they are mainly the philosophical and the theoretical psychologists, have their contrary voices. Thus, the writer of this article finds it necessary to discuss the value of cognitive neuroscience, systematically and comprehensively. This article attaches great importance to the criticisms of cognitive neuroscience. According to the philosophical and the theoretical psychologists, cognitive neuroscience is faced with three challenges: (1)neuroscience is "reductive", and it can not fully explain the process of a person's mental activity; (2) Cultural and historical context and many other factors is the most critical factors to understand human psychology and behavior, but cognitive neuroscience has nothing to do with these factors, as a result, it can not really explain the human mind and behavior; (3)the research of it does not function on people’s psychology and behavior but reveal the correlation between neural events and cognitive activities. Beginning with these challenges, and through discussing the combination of the research methods and research levels of cognitive neuroscience, this article probes how to collapse these criticisms, and what will be brought to psychological theory after. Then the value of cognitive neuroscience in psychological theory will present itself, and its importance in psychology research is clarified. Furthermore, the author of this passage points out that: (1) Reductionism can be divided into ontology reductionism, interpretation reductionism and method reductionism. The criticisms of the philosophical and the theoretical psychologists are aimed at ontology reductionism and interpretation reductionism, but cognitive neuroscience belongs to method reductionism which means that it has no threat to cognitive neuroscience. (2) Cognitive neuroscience is closely related to many other areas, such as those in social psychology and cultural psychology, thus the research on cognitive neuroscience will promote a mutual development in these areas. (3) Except revealing the correlation between neural events and cognitive activities, functional neuroimaging techniques play an important position in distinguishing competing cognitive theories, helping the cognitive neuroscientist infer something about the cognitive function of a particular site in the brain and establish a new theory. The author concludes that cognitive neuroscience is one of the disciplines in psychology, it studies only several specific kinds of problems within a limited area, therefore, it should be viewed from a scientific and rational perspective.

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