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The effect of threatening facial expressions on the perception of gaze direction 2020, 43(3): 549-556.  Abstract ( )   PDF (840KB) ( )   The Cone of Direct Gaze (CoDG) is the range of gaze directions that an observer judges as being directed towards them. It is a new indicator of eye gaze research field in recent years, to quantify the tendency of direct gaze judgment. Previous studies have found that eye gaze perception is influenced by facial expressions, angry faces have a wider CoDG than fearful faces. Although there are some explanations for why facial expressions affect the perception of gaze direction, it is not clear whether the effect of expressions on the eye gaze perception dues to the component information or configural information. In the current study, we conducted three behavioral experiments, adopted the CoDG as the dependent variable, and used three type of facial picture (upside, inverted, blur), try to separate the effect of facial component or configural information on the interaction between threatening emotion and gaze direction, to explore the above questions. We set three emotional expressions (angry, fearful, neutral) and eleven gaze directions (-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) in the current study. Participants were required to indicate whether a face with emotional expression was looking towards or away from them. Three artificial male faces created with Daz software were used for this study. In experiment 1, artificial upside faces were used as stimulus material. The main aim of experiment 1 was to verify the reliability of the emotion effect on CoDG using artificial faces. 30 participants (15 female, 15 male) completed the gaze perception task. The result showed the CoDG for angry faces was wider than fearful faces, demonstrated the difference of anger and fear on the perception of gaze directions was widespread exist. In experiment 2, inverted faces were used as experimental materials. Inversion has been shown to hamper configural processing, while impairing component processing to a much lesser degree. 34 participants (19 female, 15 male) attended this experiment. The result showed no significant difference of CoDG between angry and fearful expressions. This result indicated that the different effect of anger and fear on gaze perception mainly stems from the differences in the configurational information between the two, rather than component information. In experiment 3, blur faces were used as experimental materials to further verify the conclusion of experiment 2. Blur face is largely disrupted component information while saving configural information. 32 participants (15 female, 17 male) attended this experiment. The result showed the CoDG of anger was wider than fear in blur condition. In accordance with the prior assumption, this result of experiment 3 further verified conclusion of experiment 2. Overall, these results indicated that the influence of different threatening facial expressions on eye gaze perception is not dependent on components information, but configurational information. These findings showed that the interaction between emotion and eye gaze is mainly due to high-level emotional meaning, but not the lower- level feature. Our findings support the explanation of shared signal hypothesis and Emotion Appraisal Hypothesis for the integration between emotion and gaze direction. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Dawn Simulation on Morning Sleep Inertia 2020, 43(3): 526-533.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1010KB) ( )   Sleep inertia is a process from sleep to fully wake up. The transition entails a temporary period of confusion, disorientation, reduced alertness, bad affect and poor task performance. Previous studies have focused more attention on the pharmacological ways (e.g., caffeine, excitant) of counteracting sleep inertia. However, there is little study investigating the non-pharmacological ways such as light exposure on the impact of sleep inertia post awakening up to now. The aim of the current study was using behavior and PSG technique to explore the effect of morning sleep inertia on subjective alertness and mood as well as cognitive performance in young healthy adults. We also examined whether exposure to dynamic dawn-simulated light could be a valid countermeasure against the detrimental effects of sleep inertia after waking up in the morning. A single factor within-subject design with lighting condition (at eye level) as independent variable was used in the present study. Three different light settings (separated by 1wks) were administered each morning after one 6-h sleep restriction night: a dawn-simulating light (starting 30min before scheduled wake-up time, polychromatic light gradually increasing from 0 to 210lux), a constant light (40lux for 30min before scheduled wake-up time) and a control condition (no any light exposure prior to wake up). 21 college students (9 males) participated in the study based on strict selection criteria such as chronotype, medical and sleep disorders, general health, life habits, affective disorders, smoking, drug consumption, body mass index, shift work and transmeridian ?ights during last two months. Sleep inertia was measured by a 2-h test protocol since wakeup, including subjective ratings of alertness and mood, and by performance on a psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), a 2-back and a go/no-go task. Results were as follows: A paired t-test between baseline and the first post-sleep assessment revealed a significant difference in both KSS and PANAS scores such that subjective alertness and positive mood immediately after awakening were much lower than at baseline, thereafter it declined over a two-hour period as indicated by a significant effect of time. Performance on PVT, 2-back and go/no-go tasks were founded to be significantly worse at the first test after waking up than at baseline, and the effect of sleep inertia on these tasks dissipated over the course of two hours as indicated by a significant effect of time in the analysis of variance. Moreover, performance speed was more impaired than accuracy. Compared with control and constant light condition, the dawn simulation light resulted in a significant improvement of subjective alertness and positive mood after waking up. Similarly, response times on PVT and accuracy on go/no-go task were much faster and higher respectively in the artificial dawn condition relative to the control and constant light. However, the light conditions had no differential effects on negative mood and the 2-back task. These findings suggest that morning sleep inertia had a significant negative effect on subjective alertness and positive affect as well as some cognitive functions like sustained attention, working memory and inhibitory capacity. The use of simulated dawn light could to some extent help counteract sleep inertia after awakening in the morning, which effect was highly related to the light pattern with a dynamic exponential change. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of reward history on top-down attentional control: Facilitating or interfering? 2020, 43(3): 557-563.  Abstract ( )   PDF (665KB) ( )   Attentional control is directly affected by rewards. There is no consensus on how the history of reward affects attentional control. When stimuli are associated with reward, their visual features will acquire high attentional priority to that stimulus possessing those features can involuntarily the capture attention. However, studies have shown that rewarding history can promote later performance. This study intends to use the point detection paradigm to explore the effect of previous reward histories on top-down attentional control. Did previous reward histories promote top-down control or interfere with top-down attentional control? Two experiments were conducted in this study. Experiment 1 explored the influence of reward history on top-down attentional control through whether there were rewards in the two stages of manipulation. Experiment 2 used the same experimental method as experiment 1 to change the reward conditions and further explore the stability of reward history in promoting top-down attentional control. The amount of reward in the reward -- no-reward group was changed from 100 yuan to 500 yuan, to further explore the stability of the results of experiment 1 and the mode in which the reward effect worked. It also examined whether increasing the reward amount in the second stage would continue to improve performance after the reward had been given in the first stage. The results of experiment 1 showed that there was no significant difference in the two-stage reaction time between the reward- no-reward groups. In no-reward - reward group, there was a significant difference between the two stages, and the overall response of the reward phase was significantly shorter than that of the non-reward phase. There is an increased incentive to reward history for current tasks. In experiment 2, there was no difference between the two stages of reaction time in the high-reward -no-reward group. There was a significant difference in the overall response between the low-reward - high-reward groups. The overall reaction time was significantly shorter in the high-reward phase than in the low-reward phase. The results are consistent with experiment 1, which further proves that reward history promotes top-down attentional control. The present findings demonstrate that: In the top-down attentional control, the attention-behavior model in the case of reward incentive will continue to the later stage, which will promote the later task and show the continuous enhancement effect on the top-down attentional control. Related Articles | Metrics

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Basking in Reflected Moral Glory: How Moral Evaluation Influences Moral Self-perception and Moral Behaviors? 2020, 43(3): 519-525.  Abstract ( )   PDF (559KB) ( )   Moral events always draw attention to themselves. People tend to demonstrate their moral stand by evaluating those events. Previous studies have found that recalling one’s own (rather than others’) past moral behaviors would influence his or her own moral self-perception and moral behaviors. As an intermediate state between one’s own and others’ moral behaviors, could evaluating moral events publicly influence people’s moral self-perception and moral behaviors? If so, how? The current study involves two experiments. The first one is one-factor (3 Evaluation on: moral, immoral and neutral events) between-subjects design with 145 valid participants. Participants were required to write down comments on five events at their respective group and then given tests on their moral self-conception and prosocial intensions. Results showed that 3 groups had significant differences in moral self-perception (F(2,140) = 4.10，p = .019，η2 = 0.06). Participants in moral (M = 5.98, SD = 0.88) or immoral group (M = 6.00, SD = 0.86) had higher moral self-perception than control group (M = 5.61, SD = 0.90), which confirmed the basking in reflected glory effect in moral filed. Although moral evaluation did not have direct influence on prosocial intention (F(2,140) = 0.64，p = .529), the moral self-perception mediated the relationship between moral evaluation and moral behaviors. The 95% confidence interval were [0.019, 0.384] (moral vs. control group) and [0.047, 0.381] (immoral vs. control group) respectively, both of which did not include zero. That is, after moral evaluation, the promotion in moral self-perception could increase prosocial intentions. The second experiment had similar procedure with the first one except for two differences. Firstly, moral self-perception and other positive self-perception (such as smart, humorous) were both measured to verify moral evaluations’ specific effects on moral self-perception. Secondly, actual prosocial behavior instead of prosocial intentions were measured. There were 117 valid participants. The results were consistent with the first experiment. Participants in moral (M = 5.71, SD = 0.88) or immoral group (M = 5.43, SD = 1.12) had higher moral self-perception than control group (M = 4.84, SD = 1.17, F(2,112) = 6.43，p = .002，η2 = 0.10). But this effect did not exist in other self-concepts which were unrelated to morality((F(2,112) =0.91，p = .405). Moral evaluation did not have direct effect on prosocial behavior, but moral self-perception mediated the relationship between moral evaluation and moral behavior. The 97.5% confidence interval were [0.036, 1.010] (moral vs. control group) and [0.007, 0.833] (immoral vs. control group) respectively. In general, evidence from 2 experiments have shown that participating in moral evaluations can improve people’s moral self-perception and moral behaviors. The study expands the basking in reflected glory effect to moral area, which has been widely used in sports and politic fields. Meanwhile, these results can partly explain people’s motivation to do moral evaluation, that is, to help them feel morally good and maintain positive moral image in public. In addition, these moral evaluations can promote prosocial behaviors, which may benefit the society. These results may have some contribution to the supervision of public opinions. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Behavioral and Neural Active Features of Implicit Detection Xiping Liu Wang XIANG 2020, 43(3): 578-585.  Abstract ( )   PDF (311KB) ( )   Change blindness is the striking failure to see large changes that normally would be noticed easily. In contrast, change detection is the successful awareness of the change. The term of change detection pertains primarily to the visual processes involved in ?rst noticing a change. It denotes not only detection proper(i.e., the observer reporting on the existence of the change), but also identi?cation (reporting what the change is) and localization (reporting where it is). Recent studies have shown that while change blindness occurs, observers cannot consciously report changes, but they can unconsciously process and respond to changing stimulus. This phenomenon is called implicit detection. When an implicit detection occurs, the observer's response time, eye movement pattern, event-related potentials and activation brain area are significantly different from those the scene haven’t changes. Implicit detection affects the speed of response, which is typically manifested in Simon effect and Sperling-type tasks. Some experimental evidence from gaze-tracking and forced-choice tasks has pointed towards the possibility that some implicit bottom-up processes may guide visual perception even during change blindness. Participants could correctly guess the change location above chance level even though they claimed that could not notice the change. Comparing eye metrics of detection, non-detection and possible implicit detection, results indicated that eye metrics of fixation count, fixation duration, mean saccade length, and backtrack rate can predict detections and non-detections. Additionally, gaze plots of possible implicit detections revealed signature distinguish eye movement search patterns. Differential brain activity for changes during change blindness compared to no change condition can be observing. Brain registers visual changes very rapidly, less than 100ms after the change onset, even when the subjects are not aware of these changes. Comparing the ERPs which participants were subjectively unaware of the change and localized it correctly versus incorrectly. At the early latencies of 30-80 after change onset can observe different responses, the P3 component was strictly to the parietal electrodes for implicit detection. Change blindness does not preclude the encoding of the prechange and postchange objects’ identities and the comparison of their semantic content. There is a semantic mismatch ERP effect, that is, a more negative-going ERP resembling the N400 effect, albeit at longer latencies. Theta activity in the right superior temporal gyrus(rSTG) was noted in undetected visual change responses relative to the absence of change. Transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS) induced disruption over this area has been shown to directly increase change blindness rates. Some research show anterior prefrontal involvement in implicit detection processes. Neuroimaging and neurostimulation evidence that the dorsolateral and anterior prefrontal cortex can operate on non-conscious information in a manner that goes beyond automatic forms of sensorimotor priming and which may support implicit detection. A short-latency tecto-thalamic pathway that projects directly to the amygdala and bypasses the visual cortex has been implicated in the implicit processing of fearful faces and aversively conditioned visual stimuli. Related Articles | Metrics

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Ambiguity Tolerance And Divergent Thinking：The Role of Different Epistemic Curiosity 2020, 43(3): 542-548.  Abstract ( )   PDF (776KB) ( )   Ambiguity tolerance mainly refers to the individual's acceptance of ambiguity situations. Most researchers believe that ambiguity tolerance is one of the important personality traits affecting divergent thinking, and it has a positive predictive effect on divergent thinking. But other studies have found no significant correlation between the two. One of the reasons for the inconsistency may be that the previous studies did not consider the third variable affecting the relationship between the two. At the same time, epistemic curiosity is closely related to ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking. Therefore, this study included epistemic curiosity to further explore the internal mechanism between ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking. This study suggested two propositions. Firstly, according to Interest-Deprivation /Wanting and Liking Model theory, ambiguity tolerance is associated with I-type epistemic curiosity, which in turn is associated with divergent thinking. It could be hypothesized that I-type epistemic curiosity mediates the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking. Secondly, previous studies have shown that D-type epistemic curiosity may have a potential influence on the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking. Therefore, we also aimed to examine whether D-type epistemic curiosity plays a moderating role in the direct effect of ambiguity tolerance on divergent thinking. A total of 543 students from two universities in Xi’an completed the questionnaires measuring ambiguity tolerance (MSTAT), epistemic curiosity as a feeling of interest (CFI), epistemic curiosity as a feeling of deprivation (CFD) and divergent thinking (TTCT). Then, a hypothetical moderated mediation model was formulated to examine the effects of ambiguity tolerance on divergent thinking and the mediating role of I-type epistemic curiosity, as well as the moderating role of D-type epistemic curiosity. The results showed that: (1) Ambiguity tolerance indirectly and positively influenced three indicators of divergent thinking through I-type epistemic interest. (2) D-type epistemic curiosity moderated the association between ambiguity tolerance and originality, flexibility. Only at the high level of D-type epistemic interest, ambiguity tolerance significantly predicted originality, flexibility. And in the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and fluency, the moderating effect of D-type cognitive interest is not significant. From the theoretical perspective, as far as we know, it is the first study that combine ambiguity tolerance, I-type epistemic curiosity and divergent thinking, which can provide a constructive perspective to unravel the underlying mechanism between ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking. Furthermore, the study found that I-type epistemic curiosity plays a full mediating role between ambiguity tolerance and originality, flexibility, fluency, and D-type epistemic curiosity regulates the relationship between ambiguity tolerance and originality, flexibility. Different epistemic curiosity has different mechanisms between ambiguity tolerance and divergent thinking, which provides a new perspective to explain the dispute between the two. Related Articles | Metrics

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I listen，therefore I am? An Exploration of the Mechanism of Self-voice Recognition 2020, 43(3): 564-570.  Abstract ( )   PDF (434KB) ( )   Voice is one of the important symbols of individual recognition. Self-voice recognition refers to whether an individual can accurately identify his or her own voice in the recording. An individual can recognize his or her own voice reflects whether he or she has a normal consciousness of self. Therefore, self-voice recognition is very important for an individual. The individual understands the speaker from five aspects: indexicality, intonation, body, imitation and internalization. First of all, from the perspective of the psychological mechanism of self-voice recognition, the self-voice perceived by human beings in the recording is different from the normal self-voice perceived. The voice in the recording only contains air-conducted voice but lacks bone-conducted voice and it exists at frequencies below 1000Hz. Studies found that individuals showed self-confrontation when they listen to their own voices on the tape. There is a difference between high self-esteem individuals and low self-esteem individuals in self-confrontation and then affect self-voice recognition cognitive processing. Previous studies on individual self-recognition have different results. Speci?cally, results of some studies show that individuals exist cognitive processing advantages in self-voice recognition. The advantages are that the accuracy rate of self-voice recognition and response time is better than non-self voice recognition. But results of some studies also results show that the advantages of cognitive processing in self-voice recognition disappear. According to previous studies, there are two factors that affect the cognitive processing of self-voice. One hand is objective factor that lacks bone-conducted voice in the recording. The other hand is subjective factor that because differences in the level of individual motivation. Speci?cally, the acoustic cues of the voice, such as fundamental frequency and formant frequency, or the difference of individual self-esteem level can lead to different results of self-recognition processing on voice. For example, when the frequency below the F3 formant frequency is filtered, the individual's self-recognition will have an advantage. Individuals with high self-esteem have cognitive processing advantage when they recognize their own voice, while individuals with low self-esteem have the opposite result. As far as the Neural Mechanism of self-voice recognition is concerned that a PET study found that when individuals recognize their own voices, the right frontal area is activated. An fMRI study of cross-modal also found that individuals activate the right frontal of the brain when they recognize their own voices. An ERP study show that a significant difference P3 components between self-voice recognition and non-self voice recognition when an individual carries out self-voice cognitive processing. After study showed that in the early stage of voice recognition, N2 always has a larger amplitude of self-voice recognition than non-self voice recognition. In a word, at present, the study of self-voice recognition mainly focuses on its cognitive processing mechanism and corresponding Neural Mechanism . However, the voice belongs to the social attribute and self-representation, and whether there is difference in the individual's self-voice recognition in different cultures has not been explored. The study of self-voice recognition was first associated with self-deception, which is a self-serve bias and related to the self-protection motivation emphasized in evolutionary psychology. Therefore, it is an important direction to explore self-voice recognition under the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Related Articles | Metrics

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Eye-Voice Span: An Important Measure to Explore the Cognitive Processing of the Oral Reading Guo-Li Yan 2020, 43(3): 571-577.  Abstract ( )   PDF (663KB) ( )   Oral reading means reading aloud. It is very important for language learning. However, compared to the abundant research in the silent reading, much fewer research concerns the cognitive control in oral reading. A unique index in eye movement recording for oral reading is the eye-voice span (EVS), which directly links the eye movement and the speech voice. Thus, unveiling the psychological meaning of the EVS through related studies is a proper way to understand the processing mechanism in oral reading The EVS has been put forward for a long time. However, it has not received much attention until the last ten years. The EVS can be defined either in terms of space (the distance between the currently articulated item and the currently fixated one, spatial EVS), or in terms of time (how long it takes to articulate the item after having fixated it, temporal EVS). When EVS is defined in terms of time, a distinction is made between the time from the onset of word fixation to the onset of word naming (onset EVS), and the time from the offset of word fixation to the onset of word naming (offset EVS). According to the definition of the temporal EVS, the key roles of its calculation are (1) to keep the recoding of eye movement and the voice into the same reference in time; (2) to separate different items of a fluent speech in time. The first question can be resolved by a proper procedure in the Experiment Builder. A Praat script could be used to locate the beginning and end of spoken parts by crossings of an intensity threshold. The onset EVS for each item is equal to its naming latency, thus contains all the cognitive processing before the voice onset. Previous studies showed that the temporal onset EVS was around 500ms, while the offset EVS about 250ms, much longer that the time consuming for the motor programming of single word. Thus, the offset EVS was considered as an index for parallel processing for the current item and the next one. Both the onset and offset EVS can be used as predictors for reading deficits, and influence the eye movement control during oral reading. To be specific, readers can adjust the fixation duration to keep the EVS not too long; if this adjustment did not sufficiently reduce the EVS, a regression rather than a refixation followed with high probability. The onset EVS has been wildly explored in the rapid automatized naming (RAN) task in the previous researches. In the future, the offset EVS in this task needs to get more attention, especially considering its implications for parafoveal preview processing during oral reading. The EVS can also help understand the mechanism of language processing deficits in other special groups, such as stutters. However, a limitation for the application of the EVS is that, locating the beginning and end of spoken parts by the Praat script needs great manual work and lacks standardized criteria. The development of an automatic and standardized procedure to record the EVS is in great need for the promotion of the EVS application and comparison between scientific researches. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of monetary punishment on cognitive control: an fNIRS study 2020, 43(3): 534-541.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1075KB) ( )   Performance-contingent reward incentive has repeatedly been shown to influence cognitive control. More precisely, previous evidence suggests that performance-contingent reward can increase proactive control. Few studies, however, have investigated the neural mechanisms of the influence of monetary punishment on cognitive control. It is still unclear how punishment modulates the trade-off between proactive and reactive control. The present study used the AX-CPT, a modified version of the continuous performance test (CPT), in combination with multi-channel functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) imaging to explore the temporal dynamic activity of prefrontal cortex (PFC) in punishment condition, so as to investigate the impact of punishment on cognitive control strategies and brain activity. Nineteen healthy adults (M = 23years, range = 18-26; 11 females) participated in this study. Participants were asked to complete a the AX-CPT under blocked punishment-incentive and no-incentive (neutral) conditions in separate blocks. Within the punishment block, non-punishment incentive trials were randomly intermixed with punishment incentive trials. In the baseline block, participants were told to ignore the precues;in the reward block, participants were informed that they signified non-incentive and incentive trials, respectively. The trial was a jitter of 4000-9000ms, in order to ensure robust deconvolution of event-related fNIRS responses. Participants were instructed to press the target button only when “A” followed by “X”; AX trial:70%), with all other combinations (AY, BX, BY trial:10%) requiring a non-target response. To record the hemodynamics when participants performed the AX-CPT task, a multi-channel fNIRS system (LABNIRS, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan) was used, with three wavelengths of near-infrared light (780, 805, and 830 nm) to measure changes PFC in the concentration of hemoglobin. Behavioral results showed the increase in RT was observed for all trial types under punishment condition, whereas the error costs in AY trials indicating that participants use to proactive control strategy under punishment condition. The fNIRS data revealed under punishment condition the PFC temporal dynamics fit a proactive control pattern (primarily cue-based deactivation). The findings of the present study indicates that monetary punishment can increase proactive control and impact the activation dynamics in PFC regions that mediate such cognitive control strategies. These results support for DMC that cognitive control strategies are flexible and can be flexibly shifted within PFC. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of the Need to Belong on Friendship Satisfaction：The Chain Mediating Role of Empathy and Self Disclosure 2020, 43(3): 659-665.  Abstract ( )   PDF (659KB) ( )   Friendship satisfaction is an important aspect of life satisfaction. It is critical for adolescent to build a healthy peer relationship, from which adolescents can gain a sense of security and social support, improve their ability to engage in social interaction successfully and promote their social adaptation. Thus, it is a very valuable topic to investigate the factors which affect the adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship for promoting the development of mental health of adolescents. As far as we know, few researches directly explored the motivational factors that affect adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship. The belongingness in individuals may be related to adolescents’ satisfied friendship (or peer) relationship. According to the theory of the internal needs of interpersonal relationships, adolescents are willing to spend more time with their satisfied peers, because they can gain stronger sense of belongingness to be one group largely from available social communication with the peers. It is helpful for us to better understand adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship by investigating the relationship between friendship satisfaction and belongingness. In addition, according to previous studies, the empathy and self-disclosure are related to adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship and the need to belong. Therefore, they may also play a role in the relationship between the need to belong and adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship. In this study, empathy and self-disclosure have been introduced as two mediating variables to explore their effects in the relationship between the need to belong and satisfaction with friendship. In sum, this paper reported here aimed to explore the relationship between satisfaction with friends and the need to belong, and examine the series mediating role of empathy and self-disclosure. A total of 1296 adolescents from Hunan and Hubei provinces participated in this study. They filled out a series of questionnaires including the need to belong, empathy, self-disclosure, and satisfaction with friendship. The statistical analysis was conducted by SPSS 22.0. The results showed that, (1) Empathy played the mediating role between the need to belong and adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship. The need to belong not only directly influenced satisfaction with friendship, but also significantly predicted satisfaction with friendship through empathy. (2) Self-disclosure had a mediating effect between the need to belong and adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship. (3) Empathy and self-disclosure played the serial mediating role between the need to belong and adolescents’ satisfaction with friendship. The findings of this study reveal a serial mediation model that underlies the relationship between the need to belong and adolescents' satisfaction with friendship. The results supported the hypothesis that there is a complex link between the need to belong and satisfaction with friendship. The conclusions have a great significance for improving life satisfaction and normal socialization of adolescents. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Parental Meta-Emotion Philosophy on Children's Social Adjustment: The Mediation of Parental Reactions to Emotions bao ZongLIANG 2020, 43(3): 608-614.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1008KB) ( )   Abstract Family is the first community for children's socialization. Through family interaction, children learn to express and manage emotions and master social skills. Therefore, family emotion socialization plays a significant role in the process of children's social adjustment. Family emotion socialization mainly refers to the parental emotion socialization. Previous studies have shown that parental meta-emotional philosophy (emotional socialization philosophy) plays an important role in predicting children's social adjustment. From parental meta-emotional philosophy to children's social adjustment, researchers have paid more attention to “passive” or unintentional emotion socialization practices such as parental emotional expressiveness, while more "positive" or direct emotion socialization practices such as parental reactions to emotions, especially negative emotion, received less attention. On the one hand, the path from parental meta-emotional philosophy to the negative emotional response to children, and then to children's social adjustment, need more empirical evidence to confirm the validity; on the other hand, the roles of father and mother in the process of children's growth are different, mother spend more time nurturing her children, while father plays the role of playmate. However, as we enter the industrialized society, father also bears more and more responsibility for parenting. Whether father and mother have similar effects on children need further confirmation. In view of this, a longitudinal study was conducted to explore whether parental reactions to emotions acted as a mediator between their meta-emotional philosophy and children's social adjustment. A total of 459 preschooler were recruited from five kindergartens and participated in this study. They were followed up for two years from small class to middle class. The Parental Meta-Emotion Philosophy Scale were used to measure parental meta-emotional philosophy. The Coping With Children's Negative Emotions Scale were used to measure parental reactions to emotions. The Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Scale were used to measure children’s social adjustment. The main results were as follows: (1)maternal emotion-coaching have a significant and positive impact on expressive encouragement and problem-focused reactions, having a significant and negative impact on distress reactions; maternal emotion- dismissing have a significant and positive impact on distress、punitive and minimization reactions, having a significant and negative impact on emotion-focused reactions; paternal emotion-coaching have a significant and positive impact on emotion-focused and problem-focused reactions; (2)maternal expressive encouragement positively predict children’s angry-aggressive and anxious-withdrawal behavior; maternal problem-focused and minimization reactions positively predict sensitive-cooperative; maternal distress reactions positively predict anxious-withdrawal behavior, negatively predict sensitive-cooperative; paternal problem-focused reactions positively predict sensitive-cooperative; (3)maternal expressive encouragement at wave 2 plays a complete mediator role between emotion-coaching at wave 1 and angry-aggressive and anxious-withdrawal behavior at wave 2; maternal problem-focused reactions at wave 2 plays a complete mediator role between emotion-coaching at wave 1 and sensitive-cooperative at wave 2; maternal distress reactions at wave 2 plays a complete mediator role between emotion-coaching and emotion- dismissing at wave 1 and sensitive-cooperative and anxious-withdrawal behavior at wave 2; paternal problem-focused reactions at wave 2 plays a complete mediator role between emotion-coaching at wave 1 and sensitive-cooperative at wave 2. Our findings indicate that parental meta-emotion philosophy influence children's social adjustment by affecting their reactions to children's negative emotions. In the research of children's social adjustment, parental emotion socialization can be distinguished from more global parenting variables such as warmth, disengagement and hostility. These parenting variables describe the general interaction in parent-child relationships. The research between parental parenting and children's social adjustment is refined, and a more detailed guidance can be provided for parents to bring up children. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Development of Children’s Moral Outrage and Its Influence on Third Party Justice 2020, 43(3): 652-658.  Abstract ( )   PDF (506KB) ( )   Moral outrage is an important moral emotion. It refers to the anger or disgust that an individual generates as a third party whose interests are not affected when he witnesses the violation of moral rules. The core of morality is fairness. Most of previous domestic research on children’s distribution fairness focuses on the number distribution, but there is little research on the value distribution. Therefore, it is necessary to exam whether children’s moral outrage has differences between unfair number distribution and unfair value distribution. In addition, would children’s moral outrage lead to third party justice? Third party justice refers to the third party’s judgments based on their understanding of the organization's unfair events, resulting in moral emotions such as anger and hostility, and making various interventions. Third party punishment and third party compensation are two typical third party justice behaviors. Then, if children need to pay the price, will they still maintain third party justice? But until now, there is little research exploring the influence of children’s moral outrage on their third party justice from the perspective of cost. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to explore the developmental characteristics of children’s moral outrage in senior kindergarten, grade 2 and grade 4 of primary school, and the influence of children’s moral outrage on third party justice under different cost conditions. This study further enriches the theoretical system of children’s moral outrage, and provides a reference for schools to guide children to form correct concepts of social justice and behave fairly in moral education. Our hypotheses were as follows: (1) Children’s moral outrage increased with the growth of grade. The unfair number distribution led to more moral outrage than the unfair value distribution. And there was a significant interaction between grade and unfair distribution type in children’s moral outrage. (2) Children’s moral outrage impacted their third party justice, and children induced by moral outrage were more inclined to show their third party justice under the condition of no cost than under the condition of cost. In experiment 1, 106 children in senior kindergarten, grade 2 and grade 4 of primary school were investigated the differences of their moral outrage in grade and unfair distribution type. The results showed that: (1) Children’s moral outrage showed a trend of increasing with the growth of grade. (2) The scores of children’s moral outrage caused by unfair number distribution were significantly higher than those caused by unfair value distribution. (3) The scores of children’s moral outrage caused by unfair number distribution were significantly higher than those caused by unfair value distribution in senior kindergarten and grade 2, while there was no significant difference in the scores of 4th grade children’s moral outrage between unfair number distribution and unfair value distribution. In experiment 2, 57 primary school children were explored the influence of their moral outrage on third party justice under different cost conditions. The results were as follows: (1) The children induced by moral outrage were more inclined to show third party justice, and more willing to compensate the victims. (2)Under different conditions of inducing moral outrage, whether it need to pay a price or not would not impact children’s third party justice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that children’s moral outrage develops with the growth of grade and affects their third party justice. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship Between Peer Acceptance and Social Adjustment in Early Childhood: a Cross-Lag Regression Analysis 2020, 43(3): 622-628.  Abstract ( )   PDF (657KB) ( )   Social adjustment is the continuous learning or modification of various behaviors and lifestyles by individuals in the process of interaction with the social environment. Social adjustment is important for children's sociality, academic development and future well-being. It can directly lead to various externalized and internalized problems of children. According to the ecological theory of human development, peer group is one of the important factors affecting the development of children. Peer acceptance reflects the likeness, popularity and social status of an individual in a group and indicates the positive peer relationship of children. Many studies have identified that a high level of peer acceptance is conducive to children's positive social adjustment and reduces their problem behaviors. According to the theory of peer attachment, children's own adjustment problems will in turn affect their peer relationships. Many studies have also found that children's social adjustment also has a direct prediction effect on their peer acceptance. Higher social competence and less problem behaviors can also improve children's peer acceptance. Some limitations of previous studies are as follows. Firstly, most of the existing studies discuss the one-way prediction relationship between the peer acceptance and social adjustment.Secondly, most studies in this area have focused on one aspect of social adjustment but not all. Thirdly, most researches concentrated on the field of adolescents but pay less attention to preschool children. Therefore, this study used a tracking design of three time points to explore the correlation between peer acceptance and social adjustment in early childhood. Participants were 192 pre-school children from two public kindergartens in Shanghai, including 114 boys and 78 girls. The study adopted longitudinal design at 3 times over the course of 1.5 year. The data were collected at the beginning of the middle class for the first time (mean age 4.28±0.31 years old at Time 1), one year later for the second time(mean age 4.95±0.31 years old at Time 2), and a half years later for the third time（mean age 5.53±0.31 years old at Time 3）. Peer acceptance was measured through peer nomination procedure. The specific procedure was that the participants were asked to select the top three students in their class who liked and did not like to play together. Children's social competence was measured by the Chinese version of the social competence and behavior scale, and the internal consistency and reliability of the social ability subscale of the three tests were between .84 and .90. The internalized and externalized problem behaviors of children were measured by the Chinese version of social skill scale, and the internal consistency reliability of the three measures was between .87 and .92. The results indicated that: (1) peer acceptance at time 1, social competence and externalized problem behaviors at time 2 could significantly predict each other; internalized problem at time 1 could significantly predict peer acceptance at time 2. (2) Similarly, peer acceptance at time 2 and social competence at time 3 can influence each other; and peer acceptance at time 2 can predict externalized problem behaviors at time 3. (3) Peer acceptance did not predict children's internalized problem behaviors, nor did internalized problem and externalized problem at time 2 significantly predict children's peer acceptance at time 3. Related Articles | Metrics

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Academic Emotional Expression in Middle School Students and Its Relation with Academic Emotion 2020, 43(3): 600-607.  Abstract ( )   PDF (620KB) ( )   In the academic environment, emotions will appear in various situations encountered by individuals. In order to make all kinds of academic emotions play an active role as far as possible, researchers began to pay attention to the research topic of emotional regulation. Many studies have shown that grade and gender are related to the use of emotional expression strategies (expression inhibition and expressive enhancement). However, the results remain unclear. Previous studies have also found that emotional states themselves have an impact on the tendency to evaluate and the psychological resources required for the emotional regulation process. In addition, according to the model of emotion regulation process, emotional expression strategies are important regulation strategies after the generation of emotions. Therefore, in order to make students aware of the importance of emotional expression strategies for their learning and healthy psychological development, and learn to regulate emotions in an appropriate or adaptive way, it is necessary to explore and reveal the developmental characteristics of academic emotional expression strategies, and to examine the role of academic emotions in the use tendency of academic emotional expression strategies. Therefore, in order to investigate the gender and grade differences in academic emotion expression strategies, and the relationship between academic emotions and academic emotional expression strategies, a total of 3004 students from 7th to 12th grade were recruited from ten middle schools in Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Shananxi, Henan and Jilin and participated in this study. They were measured using two questionnaires concerning academic emotions questionnaire and academic emotion regulation questionnaire. The main findings of the study were as following: (1) Regardless of the emotion valence, there are slight differences in the use of expressive suppression and expressive enhancement among different genders and grades. (2) Positive academic emotions were positively predicted expression suppression and expressive enhancement. Negative academic emotions were positively predicted expressive enhancement, not expression suppression. These results not only suggested the gender and grade differences in academic emotional expression strategies of middle school students, but also emphasized the importance of emotion valence in regulating academic emotions, which lays a foundation for follow-up research. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Preschool Children’ s Temperament and Creative Personality: A Cross-Lagged Regression Analysis 2020, 43(3): 645-651.  Abstract ( )   PDF (664KB) ( )   With the development of science and technology, our life has become easier than ever before. However, the world has become more complex, then our life has become more difficult than ever before as well. The complexity of life is increasing and the information technology is developing, so we also have more opportunities than before. All of these mean that creativity is becoming more and more important for human development. Creativity is a psychological trait possessed by all normal individuals. It is considered to be the ability to promote economic growth and social reform at a macro level. Creativity is an indispensable comprehensive ability for individual development and social progress. Creative personality is a kind of relatively stable and integrated personality trait displayed in the process of creative activities. It can effectively promote and protect the development of individual creativity. Temperament is a relatively unique inherent mode of individual’ s response to the environment, which mainly depends on the genetic inheritance of the individual. It is a very important subclass of personality traits, and plays an important role in the formation of creative personality in young children. Temperament can make individuals’ mental activities different from others and have their own uniqueness. At present, most of the researches on children’s creative personality focused on the structure and types of children’ s creative personality, as well as their development stages and characteristics, while the research on the influencing factors of creative personality is relatively less. In all stages of life, early childhood is a particularly critical stage, and early childhood is an important period of creative development. Different temperament structure has an important influence on children’ s creative personality. However, there is no empirical research on the relationship between temperament and creative personality in the past. In this research, we examined the development of children’ s temperament and creative personality, as well as the correlation and causality between temperament and creative personality. We selected 287 3-year-olds and 4-year-olds from four different kindergartens in Dalian and their teachers filled out the Children’ s Creative Personality Tendency Questionnaire and Creative Personality Questionnaire. The results indicated as follows: (1) Correlation analysis results indicated that the creative personality was significantly positively related to the emotionality (r1=.217, r2=.194, p<.01), activity (r1=.261, r2=.200, p<.01), reactivity (r1=.558, r2=.375, p<.01) and concentration (r1=.280, r2=.333, p<.01). The creative personality was significantly negatively related to the social inhibition (r1=-.177, r2=-.139, p<.01). (2) Cross-lagged regression results indicated that children’ s Time 1 emotion (β=.097, p<.01), activity (β=.047, p<.01), reaction (β=.359, p<.01) and concentration (β=.153, p<.01) could significantly positively predict children’ s Time 2 creative personality, while children’ s Time 1 social inhibition (β=-.091, p<.01) could significantly negatively predict children’ s Time 2 creative personality. The results of this study showed that there is not only a correlation but also causal relationship between the temperament and creative personality. Therefore, in the early childhood stage, we can cultivate their creative personality according to their different temperament characteristics. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Social Support and Loneliness in Young Adulthood: A Moderated Mediation Model of Social Self-Efficacy、Negative Emotion and Left-Behind Experience 2020, 43(3): 586-592.  Abstract ( )   PDF (639KB) ( )   Modern society makes people more and more isolated from each other, and people of all ages in the whole world have been gradually affected by this trend. It is generally believed that individual loneliness will increase with age. Previous studies have paid more attention to the loneliness of the elderly. However, in recent years, some studies have shown that the experience of loneliness will reach its peak at 20 years old. Loneliness is the most common issue that afflicts individuals in early adulthood, but the loneliness of individuals in early adulthood will be frequently overlooked because of the high expectations of society for young people's ability to adapt. Accordingly, it is particularly essential to focus on loneliness in early adulthood and its influence factors and psychological mechanisms. Social support refers to the stable material and spiritual support provided by individuals in various social connections centered on individuals. An extensive body of research have confirmed that social support is significantly negatively correlated with loneliness. A series of studies have further explored various possible intermediaries. Based on the theoretical framework of cognitive-emotional systems, this present study proposes the mediating role of social self-efficacy and negative emotions in social support and loneliness. Furthermore, based on the social problems of left-behind children that have become normalized in China, we also explored the impact of the staying experience on individuals in early adulthood. The present study investigates the relationship between social support and loneliness in early adulthood, using structural equation modeling, Bootstrap method, and multi-group analysis to examine the mechanism of social self-efficacy and negative emotions, and the regulatory role of left-behind experiences. A total of 556 college students were surveyed (262 males and 294 females; 351 left-behind experience students and 200 no left-behind experience students; aged from 18 to 25 years, average age 20.7±1.46), Participants completed the questionnaires of social support, loneliness, social self-efficacy, anxiety and depression. The results show that (1) social support, loneliness, social self-efficacy, anxiety and depression are significantly relevant. Social support is an important factor in the individual loneliness of early adulthood (r = -.32, p < .001). (2) Analyses of the structural equation model shows that the multiple mediation model fitting index reaches the critical value (χ2/df = 4.91, CFI = .95, TLI = .92, SRMR = .06, RMSEA = .08). (3) Social mediation has a significant mediating effect between social support and loneliness (effect size = 9.66%); negative mediation has a significant mediating effect between social support and loneliness (effect size = 28.37%); social self-efficacy and negative emotions act as chain mediators in the effect of social support on loneliness (effect size =10.26%). (4) The left-behind experience has a regulatory effect on the relationship between individual social support and loneliness in early adulthood. The social self-efficacy of the left-behind experience group significantly predicts loneliness (p < .001), and the social self-efficacy and loneliness of the no left-behind experience group the path coefficient of the sense is not significant (p =.238). These results give support to our theoretical hypothesis that social support is an important factor in the sense of loneliness in early adulthood, as well as social self-efficacy and negative emotions as mediating mechanisms between social support and loneliness, which also provides suggestions for psychological adjustment of individuals in early adulthood. Related Articles | Metrics

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"Little Smart" or "Old Fogey"? The effect of creators’ age information on creative ideas evaluation and its mechanisms Jian-Tao Han Wei-guo PANG 2020, 43(3): 615-621.  Abstract ( )   PDF (644KB) ( )   "Little Smart" and "Old Fogey" are common phrases in the real life, they all reflect people's implicit theories of the relationship of age and creativity. As creative products or ideas are often closely associated with their creators (or designers, proposers), do the characteristics of creators influence the evaluation on their ideas? If the answer is yes, what is the underlying psychological mechanism? At present, these basic questions need to be systematically explored in academia. This study explores the impact of creators’ age information on the evaluation of creative ideas and the role of related stereotypes on it. We used responses of Alternative Uses Task (AUT) as rating materials, 60 target items were selected, and two responses for each target item, for a total of 120 ideas. One 4 (creators were falsely told as: about 10 years old primary school students, about 20 years old college students, about 30 years old adults, and over 60 years old people) × 2 (two stages in each group: without creators' information and with different creators' age information) mixed design was employed to examine the effect of creators' age information on evaluating novelty and usefulness of creative ideas. All subjects assessed novelty and usefulness on a 1-6 scale. In the first stage, the participants were not informed creators’ age information. In the second stage, the four groups were informed different creators’ age information. Participants were asked to rate 60 ideas at each stage, one half of them were assessed on novelty and the other half of them were assessed on usefulness. After the idea evaluation task, all participants completed the explicit age general stereotypes questionnaire, the explicit age creative stereotypes questionnaire, Runco Idea Behavior Scale (RIBS), and the IAT (Implicit Association Test) test of implicit age creative stereotypes. The results show that, the interaction effects between two independent variables are both significant on two creativity indicators. Participants in the group with labeling creators as 10 years old primary school students raise their novelty and usefulness scores in the second stage. The group with labeling creators as 30 years old adults raises novelty scores in the second stage. In the pattern of scores’ changing, the results of this study are inconsistent with "Little Smart" and "Old Fogey", and indicate that the influence of creators’ age information on the evaluation of creative ideas is more complex. Furthermore, participants have different explicit and implicit creative stereotypes for different age groups. They are more positive for the young and more negative for older people. However, creative stereotypes have no predictive effect on increases in novelty and usefulness scores. We speculate that the reason why stereotypes do not affect the evaluation of creative ideas may be materials using in this study is domain-general. Unlike domain-specific creative products (such as architecture, painting, music, etc.), people do not need specific knowledge to understand everyday creative products, and their evaluation may be less susceptible to stereotypes. Relevant research has the important practical value on developing evaluation methods for personal/mini-c creativity and reducing the tendency to underestimate the novelty of truly creative ideas. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Lifestyle on College Students' Online Music Purchase Intention: A Moderated Mediation Model Zi-Qing YE 2020, 43(3): 637-644.  Abstract ( )   PDF (3648KB) ( )   To explore the mechanism between lifestyle and college students' online music purchase intention. A sample of 2011 college students was investigated in the study to complete lifestyle scale, online music perceived value scale, neuroticism scale and purchase intention scale. Data was collected and analyzed using Mplus 8.3 and SPSS 25.0 software. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that models fit the data satisfactorily for lifestyle and college students' online music purchase intention, and bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the mediating effect of online music perceived value and the moderating effect of neuroticism between lifestyle and college students' online music purchase intention. The results showed that: fashion taste, perfectionism and advocating freedom positively predicted online music purchase intention of college students. The perceived value of online music played a part mediation role between fashion taste and college students' online music purchase intention. The perceived value of online music played a complete mediation role between advocating freedom and college students' online music purchase intention. The perceived value of online music played a cover effect between moderation and aggressiveness and college students' online music purchase intention. Neuroticism played a moderation role between online music perceived value and college students' online music purchase intention. In summary, the current study constructed a moderated mediation model of perceived value of online music and neuroticism to reveal the mechanisms underlying the relationship between lifestyle and college students' online music purchase intention. These findings contribute to understanding how and when lifestyle effect college students' online music purchase intention. In addition, in future research, we should pay attention to: first, for the effect size, the mediation effects in the present study were not large. This means that the results should be interpreted with caution, it is necessary to further explore other potential influence variables in the future research; second, this study only briefly examines the regulatory effect of neuroticism, whether variables such as gender and online word-of-mouth also regulate the relationship between perceived value of online music and online music purchase intention, which needs to be further discussed; moreover, as a cross-sectional study, it is impossible to explore the impact of lifestyle on college students' online music purchase intention at different stages, future research can improve this by using longitudinal research. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Music Training on Executive Functionsin Adults 2020, 43(3): 629-636.  Abstract ( )   PDF (789KB) ( )   Aims: A growing number of research have found that musical training is related to a variety of cognitive abilities. Musicians, for example, tend to have greater verbal ability, visual-spatial ability and general intelligence. Some studies suggested that executive functions play a mediating role between musical training and cognitive abilities. Executive functions (EFs, also called executive control or cognitive control) are complex set of capabilities, which can control and regulate our thoughts and behavior. Executive functions are very important for individual and are closely related to reading ability, math ability, academic performance, intelligence and mental health. Moreover, many mental disorders involve impairment of executive functions. However, the influence of musical training on executive functions is still debated. The current study mainly investigated the effect of musical training on three components of executive functions, namely inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, by comparing the differences between musicians and non-musicians. Moreover, inhibitory control was also divided into attention inhibition and response inhibition, measured by Go/No-go task and Stroop respectively, in order to discuss the musical training effect on different dimensions of inhibition control. In addition, working memory contains two distinct operating modes -- proactive control and reactive control. In this study, a Continuous Performance task (AX-CPT) was used to investigate the effects of music training on different processing processes of working memory. Moreover, the Switching task was used to examine differences in cognitive flexibility between the two groups. Methods: A total of 70 young adults were recruited as participants, which involved 35 musicians and 35 non-musicians. The musicians played instruments or learned vocal music and those who are still learning until today, whereas the matched non-musician controls didn’t have any musical training except the regular school music course. Musicians and non-musicians completed the Go/No-go task, Stroop task, AX-CPT task and Switching tasks. The sequence of tasks was counterbalanced across participants. Results: This study found that musicians had significantly higher cue d ' score on the AX-CPT task than did the non-musicians, but there was no difference in response d ' score between the two groups. Moreover, musicians demonstrated smaller accuracy cost (inconsistence accuracy minus consistence accuracy) and larger RT delay (inconsistence RT minus consistence RT) than did non-musicians on the Stroop task. However, there was no difference between musicians and non-musicians in the d ' score of the Go/No-go task and in the switch cost of switching task. Overall, musicians had an advantage over non-musicians only in AX-CPT task and Stroop task but not in Go/No-go task and Switching tasks. Conclusions: Musical training has diverse effects on different components of executive functions. The effect of musical training on inhibition control is mainly focused on attention inhibition rather than response inhibition. Musical training may promote the development of working memory, mainly for proactive control, but not for reactive control. However, the association between musical training and cognitive flexibility was weak. Related Articles | Metrics

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The U-Shaped Relationship between Emotional Exhaustion and Voice Behavior：the Moderating Effect of Intrinsic Motivation 2020, 43(3): 689-696.  Abstract ( )   PDF (928KB) ( )   In recent years，most of the researches about voice behavior are based on the social exchange theory，holding the point of view that workers use voice as a mean to reciprocate to their employers for the positive treatment. However，they largely neglect another possibility that workers may also use voice to regulate the personal resources and much less is known how workers use voice to deal with stress. To plug the holes in the theory，drawing on the conservation of recourses（COR）theory，this study elucidated a curvilinear relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice behavior（prohibitive voice and promotive voice）. Besides，based on the self-determination theory（SDT），we tested a model in which intrinsic motivation moderated the relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice behavior. Data was collected from 220 full-time employees and their supervisors in an electric power company in Chaozhou. 201 matched dyads were available，yielding an effective valid data percentage 93.5%. Among the variables，emotional exhaustion and demographic variables were collected from the employees，while promotive voice and prohibitive voice were gathered from their supervisors. Following prior studies，we controlled employees' gender，age，education， position type，position level，the year that they join the company and dyadic tenure with their leaders to rule out alternative explanations. Correlation Analysis，Confirmative Factor Analysis， Hierarchical Regression Modeling were used to test the hypotheses. We adopted SPSS 21 and AMOS 24software to do the analysis. Consistent with our hypotheses， regression results revealed that （1） Emotional exhaustion had a U-shaped relationship with promotive voice and prohibitive voice respectively, such that the relationship was negative for low to moderate levels of emotional exhaustion， and positive for moderate to high levels of emotional exhaustion. (2) Emotional exhaustion has a stronger effect on promotive voice than prohibitive voice.（3）Intrinsic motivation only moderates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and promotive voice. The current study provides several theoretical contributions. First，this study investigates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice behavior by taking the conservation of recourses perspective，which extends the antecedents of voice behavior beyond the social exchange approach and helps us better understand the psychological process underlying the use of voice. Further，we find that emotional exhaustion does not necessarily have a negative effect on voice behavior. Instead，emotional exhaustion has a U-shaped relationship with promotive voice and prohibitive voice respectively and it has a stronger effect on promotive voice. Meanwhile，grounded in the self-determination theory，we further explore the concrete effects of emotional exhaustion towards promotive voice and prohibitive voice respectively，and we find that intrinsic motivation has significant mediating effects on promotive voice, such that the lower intrinsic motivation is, the stronger effects the emotional exhaustion will have on promotive voice. This study has several limitations and might be improved in future studies. First，the present study only focuses on exploring the boundary conditions for the relationship between emotional exhaustion and two kinds of voice behavior. Future studies could further explore the mediating effect on emotional exhaustion towards voice behavior. Second，in this study，all samples were collected from a large electric power company，which means we should expand the data samples collected in other industries or other companies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Conscientiousness on Problematic Mobile Phone Use：Time Monitoring and Self-control as Chain Mediator 2020, 43(3): 666-672.  Abstract ( )   PDF (586KB) ( )   Problematic mobile phone use of adolescence has already become an unavoidable social issue on account of the development of communication technology. Since it has a quantity of harmful physical and mental effect, more and more researchers focus on problematic mobile phone use and its influencing factor. According to current researches, personality and self-control has shown to be important predictive variables of problematic mobile phone use. Health belief model（HBM） and its expanded theory shows that personality can impact the change of behavior as a behavioral clues. Dual-systems theory can be used to explain the relationship between self-control and problematic mobile phone use that the former regards as reflection system while the latter as reflecting system. Also researches verified that if one has the traits of conscientiousness, then he or she can be deemed to be highly self-control. What’s more, time monitoring, which is closely correlated with conscientiousness according to some studies, may influence the ability of self-control as cognitive monitoring. We call this theory the self-control model. Therefore, the major problem we focused on was how and to what extent time monitoring and self-control can influence the process from conscientiousness on problematic mobile phone use. This research collected self-reported data from 1200 teenagers in one high school and one middle school in Beijing, which included the grade of junior one and two together with senior one and two. We measured the level of conscientiousness by the Chinese version of the Ten Items Personality Inventory（TIPI-C）. The short version of Mobile Phone Problematic Use Scale（MPPUS）was used to gather the current situation about mobile phone use. Time monitoring was assessed by Adolescence Time Management Disposition Scale（ATMD）. Adolescence Effortful Control Scale from Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised was used to assessed the level of Self-control. The results showed that: (1) Conscientiousness can be used to predict the use of mobile phone through the chain mediator effect of time monitoring and self-control. (2) Conscientiousness can also influence the production of problematic mobile phone use through self-control directly, but the path of this influence is insignificant compared with the former. What comes to the conclusion is as the level of conscientiousness increasing, the stronger perception of time monitoring and higher ability of self-control can lead to a certain reduction of problematic mobile phone use. These findings make contributions to the mechanism about how conscientiousness can impact the problematic mobile phone use, as well as some ideas about how to deal with problematic mobile phone use through behavior modification. Since conscientiousness is relatively stable and difficult to change, improve the level of time monitoring and self-control in order to decrease the behavior of mobile use seems to be quite feasible. But extra behavior modification experiments should be done to prove this method. What’s more, this research focused on the overall use of mobile instead of specific use such as entertainment, study, communication or other, maybe further studies can be done basing on these. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship of Ambient Light and Food Consumption Decision Making: The Mediating Effect of Perception of Food Safety 2020, 43(3): 705-711.  Abstract ( )   PDF (548KB) ( )   Lighting is playing a crucial role in people’s daily life. It not only has an image forming function, but also has a non-image forming function influencing psycho-physiological activities, cognitive performance and individual behavior. A series of researches have examined the effect of lighting on food intake behavior, the evaluation of a product’s sensory attributes and choice between healthy and unhealthy food. But little is known about how ambient lighting levels might influence consumers’ willing to pay of food (WTP). This is especially noteworthy because in many stores, managers can control the ambient lighting illuminance (brightness or dimness) with ease investment to meet consumers’ demand and make profit. Therefore, this study attempt to explore the relationship between ambient light on consumer’ willing to pay, as well as the potential mechanisms underlying this relation. Prior studies have used self-control to examine this phenomenon. However, consumers are increasingly focusing on food safety than other factors in nowadays. Hence, it becomes responsibility to explore whether the perception of food safety become the more favorable interpretation for the relationship of ambient light and WTP. Despite being worried about food safety, most consumers still tend to find a standard to support or deny their doubt, like certification label. To conclude, this study sheds light on the effects of ambient light luminance on WTP of food in the perspective of perception of food safety. Two experiments were conducted to explore how ambient light influenced consumer’s willing to pay (WTP). Experiment 1 examined the main effect of ambient light illumination on WTP, and analyzed the mediating effect of perception of food safety. The results showed that ambient light luminance has a positive predictive effect on the WTP of food, with WTP being higher in bright (vs. dim) lighting (M bright=6.58, e=1.59 vs. M dim =4.88, SD=1.64; t(220)= -7.81, p<.01). The perception of food safety mediated the effect of ambient light illumination to WTP. Ambient light illumination predicted the perception of food safety significantly(β=2.76, t=17.62, p<.01), and the perception of food safety predicted the WTP of food significantly (β=.36, t=3.84, p<.01). In experiment 2, the researchers tried to explore the process driving the effects of ambient light on WTP by examining the moderating effect of certification label. Through a 2×2 completely randomized experimental design, the results showed that the ambient light (F(1, 240)=4.86, p=.028, partial η2=.020) or certification label (F(1, 240)=4.06, p=.045, partial η2=.017) has the main effect on the consumer’s WTP, and the interaction between the ambient light and certification label was significant (F(1, 240)=5.86, p=.016, partial η2=.024).In the analysis of the moderated mediating effect, the research found that the interaction between ambient light and certification label negative effect the perception of food safety (β= -.63, t= -2.05, p=.041). Specifically, for the subjects without certification label, the ambient light had positive predictive effect on the perception of food safety, but for the subjects with certification label, the ambient light had no significant predictive effect. Ambient light had positive predictive effect on the WTP of food, which meant individuals tended to pay more when ambient lighting is bright (vs. dim). Importantly, it supported a perception of food safety - based explanation for the effects of ambient light on WTP. Furthermore, certification label moderated the effect of ambient light on the perception of food safety. For the subjects with certification label, the ambient light had no significant predictive effect, which again highlighted the role of perception of food safety as the underlying factor in influencing the effects of dim versus bright ambient lighting on WTP of food. Related Articles | Metrics

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Gift giving in non-intimate relationships: Asymmetry of gift preferences 2020, 43(3): 733-739.  Abstract ( )   PDF (306KB) ( )   Gift giving is an exchange of material and non-material products between the giver and the recipient due to different events and motivations, in different relationship backgrounds. Gift giving plays an important role in maintaining interpersonal relationships. However, studies have shown that there were giver-receiver asymmetries in gift preferences. Recipients prefer gifts which are desirable, practical and can induce positive emotions. But givers do not give these gifts as often as recipients would like. They prefer to give gifts of high quality, as well as gifts that are likely to act as a reminder of the giver-receiver relationship. Givers prefer to give economically valuable gifts and socially valuable gifts, but the recipients pay more attention to the thoughtfulness of givers and practical value of the gift. The asymmetries of gift preferences lead to inconsistency of the perception of relationship outcomes. The asymmetries between givers and recipients can be explained in three ways. Firstly, the differences in cognition between self and others that result in expectation incorrectly of the recipient's preference. Secondly, it is due to the differences of self-others motivations. In addition to pleasing the recipient, the giver also wants to signal the relationship with recipient through gifts, but they cannot predict it accurately. The smile-seeking account also suggests that the main motivation of the givers is to make the recipient happy, and when the conflict arises between response seeking and satisfaction seeking, they want to choose the gift which can induce the recipient's positive emotional response immediately. While the recipient seeks the balance between the response and satisfaction. Thirdly, another possible explanation is that the social norms of gift giving impose different constraints on both parties. The influence of social norms to givers is in the choice of gifts and the ceremony of gift giving, while the influence to recipients is in their reaction after receiving gifts. Based on the differences in cognitive, motivational and social normative constraints between the two sides, the gift giving strategies are put forward. Givers should focus on the recipient’s needs and preferences. They should give priority to the recipient's actual needs or gifts that can bring long-term value, such as functional and practical items. However, there are some recipients who are well-off and have no needs. In this case, if the givers understand the characteristics and interests of the recipient, they can give gifts that accurately reflect the characteristics and interests of the recipient or experience gifts. In addition, givers can also give gifts to express their thoughtfulness. When givers are not familiar with the recipient, it is safer to give gifts which can reflect the characteristics and interests of themselves. When givers are not sure whether the recipient likes the gift or not, the giver can buy the same gift for himself, and express to the recipient that it is shared, which can also make the recipient to like the gift more. Future research needs to study the gift preferences in a more realistic context, and the decision making process of gift selection. We also should adopt a more realistic research paradigm and cognitive neuroscience technique to explore the mechanism of gift giving. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of leader-follower psychological capital on contextual performance 2020, 43(3): 673-680.  Abstract ( )   PDF (854KB) ( )   With the movement of positive organizational scholarship, the research topic of psychological capital was proposed. Psychological capital is defined as “an individual’s positive psychological state of development that is characterized by self–efficacy, optimism, hope and resilience”. Given that psychological capital has an important role of the development of the organization, this topic increasingly attracts attention and interest from scholars and practitioners alike. Previous research posited that psychological capital played a crucial role in shaping followers’ contextual performance. However, previous studies took a “follower central perspective or leader central perspective” approach to investigate the effect of follower psychological capital or leader psychological capital (separately), while ignoring their combination effect. In view of this, the present study focuses on the combination of leader psychological capital and follower psychological capital and its effect on followers’ contextual performance. Drawing on similarity–attraction theory, we proposed that the different combination modes of leaders’ and followers’ psychological capital could shape the quality of their interaction (job–based relationship represented by leader–member exchange and personal relationship represented by supervisor–subordinate guanxi), which in turn exerts effect on the contextual performance of the follower. Based on the two–wave data from 163 leader–follower dyads, this study used polynomial regression combined with response surface method to conduct analysis. The results showed that the more agreement (i.e., higher congruence) between a leader’s psychological capital and a follower’s psychological capital, the higher leader–member exchange (LMX) and supervisor–subordinate guanxi (SSG). In the cases of congruence, LMX and SSG were higher when leader psychological capital and follower psychological capital were both high instead of being both low. However, in the cases of incongruence, the level of LMX and SSG under the condition where leaders own higher psychological capital than followers were not significant different from those under the condition where followers own higher psychological capital than leaders. The combination of leaders’ psychological capital and followers’ psychological capital had a positive effect on follower contextual performance through LMX and SSG. This study contributes to the literature in several aspects. First, by revealing the congruence effect of leader–follower psychological capital on LMX, SSG, and the subsequent contextual performance, our findings serve as empirical complements for previous studies regarding the relationship between psychological capital and contextual performance. Second, by revealing the mediating role of LMX and SSG in the relationship between leader–follower psychological capital and contextual performance, this study contributes to a detailed understanding of how the combination of leaders’ psychological capital and followers’ psychological capital influences follower contextual performance. Finally, our results provide some insights for practitioners on how to promote workplace follower contextual performance, such as promoting both leader psychological capital and follower psychological capital to a congruent high level. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Self-Determination, Hours and Rewards of Overtime on Emotional Exhaustion 2020, 43(3): 697-704.  Abstract ( )   PDF (867KB) ( )   Although most people are unwilling to work overtime, the phenomenon of voluntary overtime has aroused the attention of scholars. Studies have shown that voluntary overtime can reduce the increase in job burnout caused by overtime work, but little empirical research was made to elaborate the mechanism through which the motivation of overtime affects employee’s burnout. Besides, the presence or absence of rewards for overtime was associated differently with burnout. Therefore, the present study linked the self-determination motivation of overtime to emotional exhaustion on the basis of self-determination theory, and approached perceived task accomplishment as a mediator between them. Then, this study examined the interactive effects of self-determination motivation, hours and rewards of overtime on emotional exhaustion. Data for this study were collected through a two-wave survey among 508 employees working in different organizations and industries. At Time 1, employees were asked to report demographic information, self-determination motivation of overtime, overtime hours and the level of rewards for overtime. After 4 weeks (Time 2), participants were asked to evaluate their perceived task accomplishment and emotional exhaustion. The final sample consisted of 369 overtime employees (51.8% were female, mean age = 33.76 years), who worked for 8.03 extra hours per week on average. With hierarchical regression and bootstrapping method, the results of data analysis show that: (1) Self-determined motivation of overtime has a negative effect on emotional exhaustion, and perceived task accomplishment plays a partial mediating role in this process. (2) Overtime hours and rewards for overtime have positive and negative effects on emotional exhaustion respectively. (3) There are interactive effects among self-determination motivation of overtime, overtime hours and rewards for overtime on emotional exhaustion. Specifically, Long overtime hours strengthen the negative impact of self-determination motivation of overtime on emotional exhaustion, while high self-determined motivation and high overtime rewards weaken the positive impact of overtime hours on emotional exhaustion. Meanwhile, rewards for overtime has indirect negative influence on emotional exhaustion through self-determination motivation of overtime. The findings of this study contribute to overtime literature. First, the motivation of voluntary overtime behavior is further explored. By calculating the self-determination index (SDI), the motivation of overtime work is transformed into a continuous variable that can be measured, which helps to identify employees’ willingness to work overtime more accurately. Second, through exploring the mediating role of perceived task accomplishment, this study uncover the underlying mechanism between self-determination motivation of overtime and burnout. Third, the research found that the three factors of overtime — motivation, hours and rewards have a joint influence on employees’ burnout. This study also gives practical advices to organizations and their managers. Firstly, in order to improve employees’ occupational mental health, unnecessary overtime hours should be minimized through the improvement of work efficiency by applying new technologies and optimizing management processes. Secondly, enterprises are encouraged to take measures to improve employees’ work motivation and proactivity, such as implementing employee stock ownership plan, which could share the success and benefits with employees and offer high rewards for overtime that is sufficient to satisfy employees. The forms of overtime rewards are not limited to economic benefit, but also include job promotions and personal honors. Lastly, the task assignment should consider task urgency and workload simultaneously. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Promotion Effect of Oxytocin on Social Mindfulness 2020, 43(3): 712-717.  Abstract ( )   PDF (484KB) ( )   Prosocial behavior can enhance the group's functionality, and improve positive emotions in both perpetrators and recipients. However, traditional prosocial behaviors were not primarily focusing on the perception of other's needs and wish. Correspondingly, social mindfulness is being taking care of others in the present moment, and respecting rights of others when making a decision. Therefore, it is considered as a kind of low-cost prosocial behavior, which offers a new perspec-tive for exploring how to promote a person's prosocial motivation. Oxytocin is the neurobiologi-cal hormone of prosocial behavior and some studies indicated that the effects of oxytocin on pro-social behavior were moderated by contextual factors. As a most available information in social contexts, facial attractiveness has an important influence on prosocial behavior. Therefore, the aims of the present study are to explore whether oxytocin could promote social mindfulness and whether initial relationships are influenced by facial attractiveness and gender of interaction part-ners. To examine the effects of oxytocin on social mindfulness, two double-blind plac-bo-controlled experiments were conducted. The social mindfulness (SoMi) paradigm was used to assess social mindfulness, in which participants made decisions that either limited (selected the unique one from the 4 objects) or preserved the choices of options (selected one of the 3 same objects from the 4) for the subsequent fictitious interaction partners. Study 1 recruited 58 healthy Chinese male college students who self-administered either 24 IU of oxytocin or a placebo in-tranasally first. Then, they completed SoMi paradigm with their “partner” (5 medium attractive-ness male faces and 5 medium attractiveness female faces). On each trail, the participants were instructed to look at his partner’s face first and then choose one of the four objects, after which his “partner” choose one from the remaining three objects. The results showed that compared to par-ticipants receiving the placebo, participants receiving oxytocin showed higher social mindfulness, regardless of the partner’s gender. To further explore the effect of facial attractiveness on the rela-tionship between oxytocin and social mindfulness, we manipulated the degree of facial attrac-tiveness of the partner in Study 2 (70 healthy Chinese male college students) by same procedure with Study 1. The results showed that: (1) compared to participants receiving the placebo, partic-ipants receiving oxytocin showed higher social mindfulness; (2) participants showed higher so-cial mindfulness to their partners with high facial attractiveness rather than those with low face attractiveness, and the difference in social mindfulness between high attractiveness female and low attractiveness female was greater than that between males; (3) there was no significant inter-action between oxytocin and facial attractiveness on social mindfulness. In conclusion, the current two studies demonstrated that the intranasal administration of ox-ytocin could enhance social mindfulness regardless of facial attractiveness. For social mindfulness, men seemed to be more sensitive to facial attractiveness of the opposite sex. It confirms the role of oxytocin in promoting prosocial behavior in an extended field. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of partner's phubbing and its psychological mechanisms 2020, 43(3): 726-732.  Abstract ( )   PDF (301KB) ( )   Phubbing, which is a kind of social exclusion, refers to the phenomenon that individuals ignoring offline social interaction for using mobile phones. It is a byproduct of the mobile phone and has potential threats to users' relationships and mental health. The research on phubbing mostly focuses on interactions between partners. Mobile phones play an important role in maintaining and promoting intimate relationships. There is an evidence that the use of mobile phones for relationship maintenance (e.g., daily texting) increases communication between partners, commitment and relationship satisfaction. However, inappropriate use of mobile phones can also be disruptive to individuals or couples, resulting in less time to spent together, more conflicts, lack of emotional support, and less intimacy. Based on the analysis of the structure of partner phubbing, this paper further analyzed its impact. From the perspective of the function of the family system, the influence of the phubbing behavior is divided into two aspects: one is for the impact on the individual mental health of the phubbee ignored by his/her companion(s) in a social situation because his/her companion(s) uses or check their smartphones; the other is about the impact on the romantic relationship between the two partners. Most studies have shown that partner phubbing can lead to negative emotional responses in phubbees. It can also weaken the relationship between partners and undermine the quality of intimate relationships. Furthermore, phubbing can also affect individual mental health by damaging romantic relationships between partners. In addition, this paper explained the theoretical mechanism of partner's phubbing behavior from the perspectives of expectancy violations theory, social exchange theory and interdependence theory. The expectancy violations theory starts from the individual's expectation of others and analyzes the behavior of partner's phubbing. It suggests that a partner expects to receive whole-hearted attention. However, phubbing violates such expectation and thus brings negative interpersonal relationship impact. Social exchange theory emphasizes fair exchange in interpersonal communication, and holds that maintaining a good relationship requires partners to balance their efforts and rewards. If this balance is broken, it will have a negative impact on the development of the relationship. When one is left out because of phubbing, the imbalance between efforts and rewards will lead to a decrease in relationship satisfaction, causing conflicts and other problems. Interdependence theory focuses on the interactive process of interpersonal interaction and holds that the emotion, cognition or behavior of the partners will affect each other. When phubbing takes place between partners, such negative experience will reduce the relationship satisfaction of the phubbee and increase negative emotions. The negative feedback of the phubbee will also affect the behaviors and feelings of the phubber, so the two sides are prone to frequent conflicts. In general, based on the existing research, the research in future can take the following two aspects into consideration: exploring cross-relationship (romantic relationship to parent-child relationship) and the mechanism of the effect of partner phubbing on intimate relationship. The mechanism also includes revealing how partner's phubbing behavior works (intermediary mechanism), finding protective factors (regulatory mechanism), and intervention program. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Mechanism of the Effect of Secure Attachment Priming: the Synergistic Effect of Emotion and Cognition Under the Moderating of Insecure Attachment Styles 2020, 43(3): 718-725.  Abstract ( )   PDF (402KB) ( )   secure attachment priming has been shown to have a series of positive effects. There are both universality and specificity of these positive effects coexisted. The universality of these effects refers to the fact that secure attachment priming can promote the performance of individuals at the cognitive, emotional and behavioral levels, which regardless of personal attachment styles. In addition to these general positive impacts, the priming effects were also regulated by individual's insecure attachment styles, which may be related to the differences in attachment strategy preference and degree of conceptual connection between the dependent variable and insecure attachment styles. For the preference of attachment strategy, the priming effects of attachment security was likely to be affected by individual’s own attachment security levels, namely more secure individuals may have more experiences about secure attachment interactions and memories, which makes it easier for them to backtrack the similar experiences, so that the secure attachment representation among these individuals were highly accessible in the priming context. While non-secure attachment individuals showed relative difficulty in activating such secure attachment representation due to the absence of such experiences. More specifically, individuals with high attachment anxiety were accustomed to the use of hyper-activation strategies, and may have excessive emotional responses and increased cognitive regulatory demands in the process of secure attachment priming. However, the deactivation strategies used by individuals with high attachment avoidance may lead to the failure of the security priming, because of the defensive tendency of these people. When the cues used in the priming were secure attachment related words, such as “HUG”,”LOVE”, the secure attachment priming process would inevitably activate the individual's semantic associative network, and the moderating effects of attachment styles on the priming may be caused by the difference in the connection strength between the two concepts (The dependent variable and attachment anxiety(more negative self-representation related)/attachment avoidance(more negative others-representation related)) in the semantic associative network. At present, the discussions of the internal mechanism underlying the priming of attachment security have focused on the emotion buffer process and cognitive control process. We reviewed the existing interpretations of underlying mechanism of secure attachment priming, including the threats buffering hypothesis, activating and spreading hypothesis as well as transfer of learning hypothesis, meanwhile integrated the neural basis of secure attachment priming as well as the insecure attachment styles which play the role of moderating factors, we tried to propose an emotion and cognition synergistic effect model. This model depicts that the emotional buffering process and cognitive control process initiated by secure attachment priming act on the behavioral response together, as well as the individual's personal insecure attachment styles play moderated roles in this process respectively. These processes may jointly shape the mechanism of the secure attachment priming. Finally, the key issues that need to be further explored in future studies are prospected, including the identify of cognitive components of secure attachment priming, the development of specific priming methods for high attachment anxiety or high attachment avoidance individuals, and confirmation of the positive interpersonal cycle which may triggered by secure attachment priming. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of power on anger expression under task-irrelevant condition 2020, 43(3): 681-688.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1004KB) ( )   The experiment used two factors (individual power: high, low) × 2 (target power: high, low) design to explore the effect of power on anger faces. Using FaceGen Modeller software, we generated 12 faces of Southeast Asian males as raw materials, and the standard stimulus is the 43-year-old neutral expression face, the 65-year-old neutral face is a target deviation stimulus and the 43-year-old angry face is a non-target deviation stimulus. The experiments were divided into three steps. First, the individual power are manipulated by requiring the participants to recall and write down their experiences of being controlled or controlled by others. Secondly, the target power are manipulated. Finally, completed the oddball task. In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggest that, compared with individuals with low-power, individuals with high-power (1) are more perceptually sensitive to identify neutral face targets; (2) have weaker N170 amplitudes for both neutral target stimulation and angry non-target stimulation, which supports the sensitivity bias. The results of this study indicate that when the anger stimulus is a non-target task-related stimulus, the individual's power still affects the individual's early sensitive processing of the anger stimulus. Related Articles | Metrics

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Propose and Verify of Cognitive Diagnostic Blocked Adaptive Testing 2020, 43(3): 740-747.  Abstract ( )   PDF (923KB) ( )   Abstract Cognitive Diagnostic Assessing (CDA) aims to determine whether or not examinees have mastered attributes or skills underlying according to their responses to test items, it provides a more detailed evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of students. It aims to remedial teaching, which can make students understand own knowledge state in-depth, realize self-learning. It also can achieve “teaching students in accordance with their aptitude” which is a thousands of years dream when teachers conduct targeted teaching according to the specific ability of the students. CD-CAT is one of the most successful application. It has the characteristic of cognitive diagnosis and adaption at the same time. It can evaluate the knowledge state of candidates in a short time with fewer questions. Due to classification of the ideal master patterns, the existing CD-CAT could not handle too many attributes. The number of ideal master patterns increases exponentially with the raise of the attribute number. For example, when the attribute number is 4, the category of ideal master pattern is 24=16, when the attribute number increases to 8, the category of ideal master pattern is 28=256. The attribute number is controlled in 4-8 within a unit in teaching practice. When the unit number increases, the attribute number is always more than 10, the existing CD-CAT could not handle under the granularity attribute level. The module of CD-CAT could be considered as a block, CD-MST is a few blocks. CD-CAT is adaptive at item level, it can be seen as one block. This study combined CD-MST and CD-CAT, presented a new adaptive testing—Cognitive Diagnostic Blocked Adaptive Testing (CD-BAT), which adopted dynamic and unique ideal master patterns to each examinee to control the issue of traditional CD-CAT attribute number limited. The simulation study showed that when the attribute number was 8, CD-BAT had slightly advantages than traditional CD-CAT. The reason was that the CD-BAT revised the attribute after the first block. When the attribute number was 12, the PCCR of CD-BAT was deceased, the ACCR appeared an upward trend. In other words, due to the increasing of the attribute number, the accurate of the whole pattern was decreasing, the accurate of the attribute was increasing. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Cognitive Training on Drug Addict’s Cognition Ability 2020, 43(3): 756-761.  Abstract ( )   PDF (296KB) ( )   Drug addiction is a process in which the relevant neurons in the brain undergo adaptive changes after repeated administration of anti-drug acute intensification, characterized by using some kind of addictive drugs of chronic, relapsing disease uncontrollably. The treatment of drug dependence including two stages that is physiological and psychological. The first is detoxification treatment for physiological dependence, with the purpose of stopping drug abuse and treating withdrawal symptoms. The second is deaddiction treatment, treating the psychological dependence of the dependent patients and preventing relapse. Nevertheless, relapse is still one of the main characteristics of drug addiction and the main problem in the treatment of drug addiction. And high relapse rate is the biggest challenge for drug addiction treatment. Many addiction theories suggest that lack of inhibition or executive control is a hallmark of addiction, and leading to persistent drug abuse and difficulty in treatment. Studies of drug cravings in people with addiction, such as Sihna, in stressful situations have found that the decrease of inhibitory control ability and the prominent motivation of impulsive drug seeking are the main factors to accelerate the development of individual drug addiction. In addition, the study also found that cognitive functions (memory, attention, learning, cognitive flexibility and executive control ability, etc.) play an important role in the maintenance and development of addiction. On the other hand, the effects of cognitive impairment on addiction withdrawal have also been demonstrated in the relevant clinical fields of addiction treatment. Many drugs that improve cognitive function, such as galantamine, modafinil, and atomoxetine, have achieved positive results in the treatment of drug addiction. Combine the existing research results obtained by working memory that training for healthy individuals. The researchers believe that drug addicts also have a high degree of cognitive plasticity, with training to enhance their performance on the tasks and to significantly migrate to other cognitive functions, thereby improving the relapse of drug addiction after withdrawal. In this paper, we review the results of recent studies on cognitive training with working memory as the core in various drug addicts. At present, the cognitive training tasks for drug addicts in withdrawal period mainly include digit span, N–back, Stroop and other tasks, which involve a wide range of individual cognitive abilities. After 3 to 8 weeks of various drug addiction groups and a total of 18 to 75 trials of cognitive ability training, evaluate training effects through behavioral experiments, questionnaires, and brain imaging techniques. The results showed that the cognitive ability of drug addiction individuals in the withdrawal period of cognitive training was improved and the symptoms of various addictions were alleviated. The main reason is that cognitive training can accelerate the spontaneous recovery of drug addicts with brain damage, in particular trigger positive changes in the functional and structural of the mesencephalon limbic dopamine and prefrontal system are associated with individual inhibition of control and lastly achieve recovery of damage brain structure and improved cognitive ability. And future research will focus on these issues in whether all drug addicts with different categories are all reversible or settings of cognitive training tasks can improve cognitive ability, gender differences and the long–term effects of training in the drug addiction training. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Pragmatic Turn in Cognitive Psychology Hao-sheng YE 2020, 43(3): 762-767.  Abstract ( )   PDF (311KB) ( )   In recent decades, there is a pragmatic turn in cognitive science in general and in cognitive psychology in particular. Instead of emphasizing formal operations on abstract symbols, the pragmatic turn focuses attention on the fact that cognitive processes occur in very particular environments, are employed for very practical ends, and exploits the possibility of interaction with external world. The basic meaning of the pragmatic turn is to emphasize the utility and value of cognition to action. In a sense, traditional cognitive psychology is not “pragmatic”, because it is about “representation” and “computation” “ in the head”, which is separated from bodily action. Ever since its establishment as a researching paradigm, cognitive psychology has been dominated by a computational-representational view of cognition, which has become the mainstream in cognitive psychology in 1960s. The key proposition that characterize this old-fashioned representation-centered paradigm are that cognition is a computation over mental representations. According to the paradigm, the brain is like a computer: the physical structure of the brain is like the hardware of a computer, and the cognitive process is like the software of a computer. However, over the past few decades, cognitive psychology is witnessing a pragmatic turn away from the traditional representation-centered paradigm of cognition toward one that focuses on considering cognition as being “enactive”. It emphasizes the idea that cognition is for action, and that this action-orientation shapes most cognitive processes. Cognition has pragmatic "utility", and its utility lies in guiding organisms to act more effectively, rather than representing the world and establishing mental models of the external world. The key assumptions of this pragmatic view are: (1) cognition is not a way of "representation", but an embodied action. Fundamentally, cognition is a way of physical activity, and the main task of the cognitive system is to structure environmental information by the actions of organisms. (2) Cognition is inseparable from bodily action. The cognitive structure comes from the recurring mode of sensorimotor contingency. (3) cognitive agent do not "reflect" the world, but “enact” or “bring forth” a world by action. (4) The cognitive system is extended into environment, and environment is an active component of the cognitive system. (5) There is no clear dividing line between so-called "higher" cognitive processes and "lower" sensorimotor abilities. Higher cognitive processes such as thinking, reasoning and imagination are rooted in, and based on, the sensorimotor contingency of the organism. In the past, it was generally believed that the pragmatic turn was mainly influenced by the body phenomenology of Merleau-Ponty, and little attention was paid to the effect of classical pragmatism on the pragmatic turn. In fact, the pragmatic philosophy of James and Dewey is the philosophical basis of this turn. James and Dewey et al. 's pragmatism emphasis on bodily action and practice has deeply influenced some cognitive psychologists, urging them to give up the view of representation-centered cognition and turn to the view of action-oriented cognition. In the author's opinion, the pragmatic turn will have a positive impact on the healthy development of cognitive psychology because it emphasizes the "utility" and “practice” of cognition. Related Articles | Metrics