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The Role of Context in Value-driven Attentional Capture 2020, 43(2): 280-287.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1645KB) ( )   Attention is automatically drawn to stimulus features previously associated with reward, a phenomenon referred to as value-driven attentional capture. Most previous studies associated a target-defining single feature(color, shape, orientation) or spatial location with reward in the training phase. However, task-irrelevant spatial context had never offered uniquely predictive information about the receipt of reward in previous studies. It is unclear whether feature and location-based value-driven attentional capture is extended to spatial context. Anderson(2014) investigated the roles of target color and spatial context in value-driven attentional capture, but in his research, neither the target color nor the context could predict reward independently. When target color and spatial context can predict reward independently, the pattern they affect attention is need to be examined. The present study used training-testing paradigm to explore the role of spatial context in value-driven attentional capture. Experiment 1 was designed to test whether context-value association can capture attention via reward-based learning. In training phase, correct response was followed by high reward when the red color target appeared in context A, and low reward feedback when it appeared in context B. In test phase, all participants completed a search task in which color was irrelevant. In some trials, the red stimulus was presented as distractor in different contexts. Experiment 2 was designed to test the interaction effect of color and context in value-driven attentional capture. In training phase, correct response was followed by high reward feedback when the X-color target appeared in context A, and low reward feedback when Y-color target appeared in context B. In test phase, X-color or Y-color stimulus was presented as distractor in different contexts. In experiment 1, we found when red stimulus was presented in the context associated with high reward, it could capture attention in test phase. The result in experiment 2 showed when integration information of color and context was associated with reward, but each information could predict reward independently, color distractor associated with high reward appeared in test phase, it could capture attention regardless of the context. In addition, we observed faster search times on high reward compared to low reward trials in training-phase of all experiments. The present findings suggested that (1) The spatial context associated with high reward can capture attention. This result provide strong evidence for classical (Pavlovian) conditioning, stimulus-reward contingencies is sufficient to obtain value-driven attentional capture; (2) When target color and context can predict reward independently, the individual uses only one reward-signaling stimuli(color), and another reward-signaling stimuli(spatial context) can be ignored. This result is consistent with the Attentional Theory of Context Processing. Related Articles | Metrics

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Seeing is Believing? The Confirmation and Strategy Response in Visual Search 2020, 43(2): 296-301.  Abstract ( )   PDF (701KB) ( )   One of the most well-known cognitive biases is confirmation bias, wherein selection and evaluation of information that would confirm a focal hypothesis is given priority—or even exclusivity. Some researchers suggested that there was a strong confirmation bias in visual search, that attention is preferentially deployed to stimuli matching a target template, even when alternate strategies would reduce the number of searches necessary. However, visual search can be made more efficient by adopting the optimal strategy. There is growing consensus that reward plays an important role in the control of attention, even reward-associated stimuli can automatically capture attention. Therefore, goal-directed processes and stimulus-driven processes would produce optimal balance according to the changes of stimulus resources. Given the reaction time is indirect evidences for confirmation bias, in this article, we pursue the question of whether visual selection exhibits a confirmation bias by eye movements; specifically, when searching for a particular stimulus there will be a fixation for it. If there is not the fixation for target, but the response is correct, then there may be the change of visual search strategies. The present study used eye tracking to measure the effects of each type of attentional template representation on visual search processes. The experiment was a 2 (color match: match, mismatch) × 3 (red proportion: 25%, 50%, 75%) within-subject design. Participants are recruited to finish the visual search task, which the stimulus are composed of lowercase p’s, q’s, b’s, and d’s. Each letter has two colors (ren and blue). The participants’ task is to make a decision of the target letter’s color. During the search, dwell time, fixation and saccade amplitude were recorded. The results showed that there was a confirmation bias based on the findings of reaction time. But, when used the fixation as the index, the confirmation responses and optimal strategy responses showed some different changes. That is, with the difficulty of searching varies, participants showed the different performance: in the match condition, when the red letters’ proportion is 25% and 50%, participants reacted most quickly and the proportion of confirmation responses is the most. However, in the mismatch condition, the confirmation responses decreased and the optimal strategy responses increased significantly. Though the evidence to date supports the possibility that top-down visual selection mechanisms may automatically lead to confirmatory searching. By using the fixation as the index, we measured whether stimuli that could confirm the presence of a target are prioritized over those that could disconfirm the presence of a target. Our results provide support for the notion that the suitable strategies during visual search will be changed.The confirmation response based on template-target matching, and the strategy response will automatically switch according to the availability of resources to achieve the optimal performance. We take these results as suggesting that decision makers are assumed to have the intention to seek truth and make optimal decisions, but their decisions showed a remarkable flexibility on a trial-by-trial basis, the usefulness of such strategies depends on the type of template-target matching to be the most efficiently compared. Eye movements reflect and shape strategies for the visual search tasks automatically. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Pairing Relationship between Belief and Logic in Deductive Inference Xiao-Yu HU Wei Ouyang yan AI 2020, 43(2): 258-264.  Abstract ( )   PDF (521KB) ( )   There are two different theoretical hypotheses have predicting the relationship of pairing process between belief processing and logic processing in reasoning.The relationship of sequence processing, represented by Default - Interventionist Model. And the relationship of parallel processing, represented by Parallel Competition Models and Hybrid Model. However, These theoretical hypotheses are difficult to explain why the relationship of sequence processing and the relationship of parallel processing are both supported by empirical research. Because these are focus on the phenomenon how to cooperate and transform between processing processes of the belief and the logic. Dual Structure Model of Item and Reasoner’s reasoning Knowledge holds that reasoning process are dynamic processing processes with the variety of the object structure of reasoning item and the Reasoner’s subject factors. And it has been indirectly found that the object structure of reasoning has a dynamic effect on the cooperation of two kinds of processing processes. □□The purpose of this study is to proof whether the reasoning subjective factors lead to the dynamic variability of the cooperation and Transformation between the two types of processing processes, so that to verify whether there are variability in the relationship of pairing processing between the belief and the logic in reasoning. The experiment will examine whether the process of belief and logic in the initial stage of reasoning cognition have speed-asymmetry of processing with the change of subjective directing. And in this study, the subjective directing of reasoning will be operated by instruction. □□Hence, focusing on the early stage of cognition, construction of 3 (instruction: undefined, logic, belief) × 2 (belief: believable, unbelievable) × 2 (validity: valid, invalid) within - subjects design. participants were asked to solve syllogistic reasoning according to the instruction requirements. Among three kinds of instruction, undefined instruction does not indicate reasoning clue, belief instruction require participants to judge reasoning based on knowledge and experience in the real world, and logic instruction requires to determine whether there is a necessary relationship between premises and conclusion. □□The results showed that the instruction, validity and belief have significant effects on the acceptance of the conclusion. The interaction effect between instruction and validity are significant, interaction effect between instruction and belief are significant, and interaction effect between instruction, validity and belief are both significant. Further analysis found that under the instruction of undefined, the conclusion acceptance rate are affected by the interaction between Logic and belief. Under the instruction of logic, the conclusion acceptance rate are affected by validity and belief. Under the instruction of belief, the conclusion acceptance rate are only affected by the belief. □□We can summarize that the reasoning process of participants are different the change of the instruction requirements in the initial process of reasoning cognition. Therefore, It shows that there are dynamic variability in the pairing processing of the belief and the logic in reasoning. And there are different processing relationships due to the change of subjective directing. We also believe that this result supported the prediction of Dual Structure Model of Item and Reasoner’s reasoning Knowledge, which reasoning subject affects reasoning process. Related Articles | Metrics

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Interference Effect of Visual Negative afterimage on Visual Search Efficiency 2020, 43(2): 272-279.  Abstract ( )   PDF (901KB) ( )   The visual search efficiency is affected by the color of the interferer. When the interferer is close to the target color, the visual search efficiency will decrease, and the same effect can be found in the relationship between background and the target. Prior studies mainly focus on the influence of existing background and interference factors on visual search, without considering special visual factors such as negative afterimages. A negative afterimage is a visual phenomenon in which adaptation to a chromatic stimulus induces color perception of the opposite chromaticity after the removal of the stimulus. When appears on the information search interface, the negative afterimage will have to be seen as the background or a distractor of visual search. This study is to explore the effect of visual image on visual search efficiency. In experiment 1, we used a two-factored internal design of 2 (with afterimage/no afterimage) ×3 (color relationship of afterimage color and search information: similar color/complementary/neutral color).we combined the van Lier afterimage with visual search paradigm--using the red "cross- shaped " four-pointed star and the green " x-shaped " four-pointed star overlapping as stimulus material, two types of contours as inducing material with 5 English letters. Firstly, the color stimulating material of 1200ms is presented, and then the contour of the four-pointed star with visual search information is presented. The subject found the target letter and reacted. After a1200ms visual mask, the correct answer was input, and the next trial was performed at intervals of 3000ms. A complete procedure was comprised of 4 blocks: 2 block A (with afterimage) and 2 block B(no afterimage), and each block contained 30 trials(5 information places × 3 conditions×2 contours). Reaction times and error rates were recorded. However, it had a lower afterimage perception accuracy than the prior studies and maybe father influence the result. To find out the effect of the adding information on afterimage perception, in experiment 2, we used a 2(with visual information/no visual information) ×2(afterimage color: red and green) ×3(information color: red, green and gray) design and same procedure as experiment 1. Repeated measurement analysis of variance for the obtained data, and we found that: 1. The main effect of the afterimage is significant（F=38.372，P<0.0001）. In the case of a afterimage present, the subject's RTs is significantly slower than in the case of no afterimage;2. The main effect of color is not significant, and the relationship between the color of the afterimage and the color of the search information does not significantly interfere with the visual search efficiency; 3.The color-filled portion of the afterimage also has an interference effect as the visual search for the original afterimage;4. The adding visual information does not weaken the perception of the afterimage color. These results show that the afterimage itself will reduce the efficiency of visual search, and whether the color of the afterimage or other factors interfere with the visual search remains to be explored. Therefore, in the work of high visual search efficiency, the visual information display interface design should minimize the triggering of the rear image to improve the visual search efficiency, thereby improving the task success rate. In addition, the results of this study also provide an objective assessment method for afterimage research. In addition to the subjective report of the subject, the experimenter can also visually search for the reaction to determine whether the afterimage occurs. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Phonological Planning Scope in Speech Production: Evidence from Picture-word Interference Paradigm 2020, 43(2): 265-271.  Abstract ( )   PDF (547KB) ( )   In advance of articulation, to what extent must the utterance be phonologically planned? Extant evidence suggests that planning is fully incremental (one phonological word at a time), while some studies propose larger units. One of the key reasons is that previous experiments using picture-word interference paradigm have yielded very different results concerning the effects of distractors that are phonologically related to a word in noninitial position of a multiword target utterance. The results reported range from facilitation effect to no effect, and even to inhibition effect. To account for this phonological inhibition effect, Jescheniak et al. (2003) proposed a graded activation hypothesis, which needs further tests. In this study the picture-word interference paradigm was used to test the graded activation account, and to explore the phonological planning scope. Thirty-six undergraduate students participated in the study and were asked to produce utterances of the form “The airplane and the necklace are above/below/on the left/right side of the toothbrush” for objects containing these referents (e.g., an airplane, a necklace & a toothbrush), and as accurately and soon as possible. Each display was accompanied by a auditory distractor which was phonologically related or unrelated to the nouns, or a white noise. The distractor was presents at the same time, or 150ms or 300ms later than the display. All the nouns encompassed two syllables. In the phonologically related conditions for each noun (e.g., “airplane”), the distractor was identical to either the first (e.g., “air”) or the second (e.g., “plane”) syllable. In such a long utterance and elaborate step (i.e., a syllable), the graded activation account was easily explored. In other words, the phonological inhibition effect would be hardly missed if the graded activation account is the truth. The results of speech onset latencies showed a phonological facilitation effect on the first noun of both syllables. In addition, there was no phonological effect on the second and third nouns. There results were contradictory with the graded activation account, and indicated that phonological inhibition effect is not necessary to test the phonological planning scope. The phonological planning scope is the first phonological word, which is consistent with the fully incremental hypothesis. Meanwhile, the results of speech error rates showed a phonological facilitation effect on each noun of the utterances. These results indicated that the phonologically related distractor indeed strengthened the phonological activation of the corresponding noun, and made it easy to be pronounced. However, this facilitation effect was not reflected on the onset latencies for the second and third nouns, which further indicated that the latter two nouns were not phonologically planned before the sentence articulation. Related Articles | Metrics

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The spatial selectivity of the visual duration aftereffect 2020, 43(2): 309-315.  Abstract ( )   PDF (279KB) ( )   Duration aftereffect refers to prolonged adaptation to one duration biases the perception of the subsequent duration. For example, adapting to a relatively short duration, the subsequent stimulus of intermediate duration will be perceived longer, whereas adapting to a relatively long duration, the subsequent stimulus of intermediate duration will be perceived shorter. Previous studies yielded two different viewpoints about whether the visual duration aftereffect could transfer from one position to another position. On the one hand, some researchers suggest that the duration aftereffect could transfer to another position, in other words, the duration aftereffect is position invariance. On the other hand, some researchers argue that the duration aftereffect could not transfer to another position, that is, the duration aftereffect is position specificity. The discussion of the spatial selectivity of the visual duration aftereffect should help reveal the cognitive neural mechanism of duration perception better. Position invariance may suggest that the coding of duration is located in some higher cortex, whereas position specificity may suggest that the coding of duration is located in the primary visual cortex. Researches have showed that the neurons at early visual cortex are usually characterized by small receptive fields, which are often confined to the contralateral visual field. Therefore, if the duration adaptation occurs in the primary visual cortex, the duration aftereffect should be limited to the adaptive position or a few degrees away from the adaptive position, and it cannot transfer to another visual field. On the contrary, if duration adaptation occurs in higher cortex, the duration aftereffect can transfer to a position far from the adaptation position or another visual field. In the future, we can first explore the visual coordinate representation of the duration aftereffect. In the previous studies of duration aftereffect, the gaze points presented to the participants remained stable during the whole task. In our daily life, however, things such as rapid eye movements, rotation of the eyes and head, shaking of the body may all lead the change of our gaze points, which may lead to the change of the images projected on the retina. By manipulating the positions of the gaze points, future researches can explore whether the representation of the duration aftereffect is retinotopic or spatiotopic. Furthermore, it is also important to investigate the spatial selectivity of the duration aftereffect in other sensory modality. Our time perception is usually based on comprehensive information, such as visual, auditory and tactile information. The present studies mainly focus on visual modality, but few researchers examine the spatial selectivity of the duration aftereffect in auditory or tactile modality. The duration aftereffect were also shown in the auditory and tactile modality. Thus future studies are able to examine this effect of different spatial orientations and distances in different sensory modality. At last, we can investigate the neural mechanism underlying the spatial selectivity of the duration aftereffect using multiple indicators. For instance, ERP technology can be used to determine whether the aftereffect is position specific or position invariant by CNV components which evoked by adaptation, so as to further investigate the time course of the spatial selectivity of the duration aftereffect. Moreover, the fMRI adaptation technique can also be used to uncover the locus of neural adaptation, and whether these neurons is position invariant or position specific. Without specific sensory receptor, it is difficult to explore the cognitive neural mechanism of time. Duration aftereffect and its spatial selectivity, which have received increasing focus, provide a new perspective to bring it to light. This review summarizes the behavioral and neurophysiological evidence that support the different spatial selectivity of the duration aftereffect, tries to analyze the possible reasons of different research results, and proposes possible directions for future studies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Attention Capture and Suppression of Color and Conceptual Relevance on Non-target Working Memory Representation 2020, 43(2): 302-308.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1654KB) ( )   Working memory (WM) representations can capture attention in top-down manner, even when it is irrelevant to current task performance (i.e., non-target WM representations). Non-target WM representations produce attention suppression through task relevance and cognitive control. WM representations not only suppress attention at the color relevance, but also at the abstract conceptual relevance. Previous studies have claimed that a substantial and earlier bias in orienting toward color relevance compared with conceptual relevance. However, it remains unknown whether the priority of processing will affect the attention suppression of different relevance in the non-target state, that is, whether the priority of processing leads to the separation of attention suppression. The study employed working memory and visual search dual-task paradigm. Experiment 1 and 2 adopted a single-factor, three-level, within-subject design. In baseline condition, neither the memory item nor the search items were related in terms of color or meaning. The color related condition was defined as the condition that the color of the memory item was the same as some of the search items (that were the distractors). The conceptual related condition was referred to the situation that the color of the memory item was the same as the meaning of distractors. Before the experiment, the subjects were clearly informed that "the memory item is always different from the search target" and the subjects were motivated to suppress. All the target and distractors had a gap, and participants were required to make a speeded response to the search array that indicated which of the two possible target objects was present (i.e., a square with a top gap or with a bottom gap). The main difference between Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 was whether the distractors are salient or not. In Experiment 1, only color related distractors were colored, conceptual related distractors and neutral distractors were white, however, all search items were colored in Experiment 2. In Experiment 1, the results showed that there was no significant difference between color related condition and baseline condition, while conceptual related condition led to longer response times (RTs) compared with baseline condition. On the contrary, in the early stage of a speeded response task, the RTs of color related condition were longer than baseline condition. This indicates that the color relevance is suppressed under the influence of active inhibition strategy, while conceptual relevance is not successfully suppressed. In experiment 2, the perceptual salience effect was eliminated. The results showed that the RTs of color related condition were longer than the baseline condition, while the RTs were no difference between conceptual related condition and baseline condition. This indicates that attention capture is observed in the color relevance, however, attention capture is not found in the conceptual relevance. In conclusion, the color relevance is processed earlier than the conceptual relevance. The priority of processing has an impact on the inhibition strategy, which is mainly characterized by selective suppression of different relevance in Experiment 1. Experiment 2 confirms that the perceptual salience also contributes to the formation of inhibition strategy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Syntactic Priming Effect in Chinese Spoken Sentence Production: An Eyetracking Study Ning ZHANG 2020, 43(2): 288-295.  Abstract ( )   PDF (577KB) ( )   In sentence production, syntactic priming effect refers to a phenomenon that speakers or writers prefer to reuse syntactic structures that they just processed, and the magnitude is larger for less frequently used (non-preferred structure) than for more frequently used (preferred structure). Different theories have been proposed to account for the syntactic priming effect. The implicit learning theory assumes that the syntactic structure of prime sentences strengthens the connection between the specified syntactic structure and the specific content of a sentence. The two-stage theory hypothesizes that syntactic encoding involves syntactic structure's selection and content planning. The syntactic structure of a sentence is determined by the maximum activation of syntactic nodes, and the production latencies is determined by the activation difference of all activated syntactic nodes. Studies have addressed the behavioral responses including syntactic choices ratio and production latencies, however, little is known about the eye-tracking pattern in planning of sentence production. The present study investigated the eye-tracking pattern of syntactic priming effect in Chinese spoken sentence production. In a syntactic priming task, participated were presented a sentence (as a prime) auditorily, and then they need to judge a visually presented sentence matched the prime sentence or not. After that, participants were instructed to describe the target picture orally using the verb “give”. The eye-movement and production sentences were recorded. We manipulated prime sentence type (double objects, prepositional objects, and simple sentence) and target sentence type (double objects and prepositional objects). For the syntactic choices ration, results showed that the type of prime sentences affected the syntactic structure choice ratio, presenting that in comparison with simple sentence prime condition, speakers produced more double objects (or prepositional objects) sentences in the double objects (or prepositional objects) prime condition. For the eye-movement pattern, results showed that it was modulated by prime sentences, regardless of the consistency about syntactic structure between primes and targets. In the double objects prime condition, fixation ratio on indirect object was significantly higher than that of direct object, and fixation sequences contained more sequences of indirect object in priority, while in the prepositional objects prime condition, fixation ratio on direct object was significantly higher than that of indirect object, and fixation sequences contained more sequences of direct object in priority. By contrast, in simple sentence prime condition, the eye-movement pattern was determined by the type of target sentences. Fixation ratio on indirect object was significantly higher than that of direct object when producing targets with double objects, and fixation ratio on direct object was significantly higher than that of indirect object when producing targets with prepositional objects. Our findings indicated that there is a syntactic priming effect in sentence production, presented in syntactic choice ratio and eye-tracking pattern. We suggest that the findings on eye-tracking data provide evidence for the two-stage theory in sentence production. Related Articles | Metrics

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Implicit Attitude towards Social Information of College Students with Social Delay Wan-ru LIN lian rong 2020, 43(2): 340-346.  Abstract ( )   PDF (629KB) ( )   The aim of this research is to explore the social development delay college students’ implicit attitude to social information. And this research discussed their implicit attitude to social activities, social relationship and social self-evaluation through three experiments. The result showed that (1) the response time of the social delay group students to group activity was shorter; (2) there was no obvious difference between the delay group and the normal group on their response to the teacher-student relationship and classmate relationship, and in general, both delay group and normal group students were with negative implicit attitude to teacher-student relationship, while with positive implicit attitude to classmate relationship; (3) there was a positive bias in social self-evaluation in delay development group students, but they contained a more sensitive response to positive evaluation to others or negative evaluation to themselves, and those response to evaluation was overall more sensitive than normal group. To conclude, there are a part of differences between social delay development college students and students with normal social development of their implicit attitude to social activities, social relationship and social self-evaluation. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Cyberbullying victimization on Adolescents’ Sleeping Problem: The Chain Mediating Role of Perceived Stress and Depression Xiao-Wei CHU 2020, 43(2): 378-385.  Abstract ( )   PDF (746KB) ( )   Cyberbullying is defined as “any behavior performed through electronic or digital media by individuals or groups that repeatedly communicates hostile or aggressive messages intended to inflict harm or discomfort on others”. So, cyberbullying victimization refers to experiences that someone cyberbullied by the perpetrators. Nowadays, a growing body of research has investigated the influence of cyberbullying victimization on individuals’ social-psychological adaptation and made a series of achievements. For example, researches demonstrated that cyberbullying victimization could contribute to induce more negative affect, increase in negative self-concept, decrease in self-esteem as well as increase in loneliness and deviant behaviors. As research continues, some researchers begin to explore the association between cyberbullying victimization and physical health. These studies have shown that cyberbullying victimization was positively associated with somatic symptoms, such as headache, feeling nervous, difficulties in getting to sleep and so on. However, few research using the standardized questionnaires directly explored the relation between cyberbullying victimization and sleeping problem. Sleep plays a critical role in adolescents’ daily life. There is considerable evidence suggesting that poor sleep quality could seriously damaged the adolescents’ cognitive and emotional function, and then lead to a series of negative consequences. It is necessary to explore the influence of cyberbullying victimization on adolescents’ sleeping problem and the underlying psychological process. Existing research has showed that perceived stress and depression might play important roles between cyberbullying victimization and sleeping problem. Therefore, this study intends to explore the influence of cyberbullying victimization on sleeping problem and its mechanism. To investigate the relationship between cyberbullying, perceived stress, depression and sleeping problem, a survey research method was adopted in which the Cyberbullying Victimization Scale, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index Scale and Traditional Victimization Scale were administered to 682 middle school students. Data were collected and analyzed with AMOS 21.0 and the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the chain mediating roles of perceived stress and depression between cyberbullying victimization and sleeping problem. The results indicated: (1) The relationships between each pair of cyberbullying victimization, stress, depression and sleeping problem was significantly positive. And cyberbullying victimization, perceived stress as well as depression were positively correlate with sleeping problem. Cyberbullying victimization directly predict sleeping problem but had no direct effect on depression. However, cyberbullying victimization significantly predict perceived stress; perceived stress significantly predict depression; both perceived stress and depression significantly predict sleeping problem. (2) Cyberbullying victimization affected adolescents’ sleeping problem through two indirect paths: through the mediating role of perceived stress; through the chain mediating role of both perceived stress and depression. The present study highlighted the complex nature of association between cyberbullying victimization and adolescents’ sleeping problem, which expanded upon the existing research related to the association between offline stressors and sleeping problem by exploring the negative effect of online stressors. It may contribute to understand how cyberbullying victimization influences sleeping problem. In addition, these findings had theoretical and practical implications for educators aimed at preventing the adverse influence of cyberbullying victimization and improving adolescents’ sleep quality. Related Articles | Metrics

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Preschoolers’ Selective Trust Characteristics of Knowledge in Different Domains in the Clue Conflict Condition 2020, 43(2): 371-377.  Abstract ( )   PDF (509KB) ( )   Preschoolers are in an important period of intellectual development and knowledge learning. Preschoolers can acquire knowledge through their own experience (personal learning) and their interaction with others (social learning), but most of them are the latter. The learning process of preschoolers can be seen as a process of trusting the information provided by others. In recent years, selective trust appears to be a hot spot in the developmental psychology field. Previous research indicated that preschoolers used past reliability and consensus to learn new knowledge, and the goal of the present study is to examine the characteristics of selective trust in preschoolers when they are in conflict. In real life, object labeling belongs to the understanding of objective things, which is a part of the conventional domain knowledge. And understanding others belongs to the social domain knowledge. Most of the researches of selective trust focused on the conventional domain knowledge in the past. In recent years, they have expanded into the social domain knowledge. And preschoolers’ selective trust was studied separately on the conventional and social domain knowledge. Since they weren’t based on an integrated framework, the results could not good answer the similarities and differences of the two domains knowledge learned by preschoolers. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate selective trust characteristics of knowledge in different domains. In Experiment 1, 88 4- to 6-year-old preschoolers participated in the study. we examined the selective trust characteristics of the conventional domain knowledge in the clue conflict situation. All preschoolers were presented with a three-phase testing sequence involving a pre-reliability phase, a reliability familiarization phase, and a post-reliability phase. The result indicated that 4-year-old preschoolers used the consensus clue to make trust judgment, and 5- and 6- year-old preschoolers used the accuracy clue to make trust judgment. In Experiment 2, 94 4- to 6-year-old preschoolers participated in the study. we examined the selective trust characteristics of the social domain knowledge in the clue conflict situation. All preschoolers were also presented with a three-phase testing. The result indicated that 4-year-old preschoolers used the consensus clue to make trust judgment. The 5-year-old preschoolers could not explicitly use the consensus clue or the accuracy clue to make trust judgment, and the 6-year-old preschoolers used the accuracy clue to make trust judgment. Experiment 3 was used within-subjects design to explore the selective trust of 5-year-old preschoolers in different fields of knowledge, all preschoolers were presented with a two-phase testing sequence involving a reliability familiarization phase and a post-reliability phase. Part of the results of Experiment 1 and Experiment 2 were verified. In summary, the consensus clue is one of the ways in which children assessed information reliability, Conformity is an important mechanism for social learning. With age, the accuracy clue is dominant when children learn knowledge. Furthermore, the study found that preschoolers’ selective trust in different domains has different age development characteristics. 4-year-olds learn the conventional and social domain knowledge based on the consensus clue; 5-year-olds learn the conventional domain knowledge based on the accuracy clue, but don’t make biased choices for the consensus clue and accuracy clue when learning the social domain knowledge; 6-year-olds learn the conventional and social domain knowledge based on the accuracy clue. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect Of Intrusive Thoughts On Online Addiction: A Moderated Mediating Model 2020, 43(2): 316-322.  Abstract ( )   PDF (562KB) ( )   As of June 2018, the number of Internet users in China reached 802 million. The Internet has brought great convenience to people’s work, study and life, but also with some negative effects, such as cyber violence, pornographic and addiction. Among these negative problems, Internet addiction is most concerned. Previous studies have suggested that individual characteristics (personality, self, needs, emotion, thinking), environmental characteristics (schools, families, peers) and network use characteristics (motivation and experience) can affect Internet addition, but few studies have focused on the role of intrusive thoughts. Almost everyone experiences intrusive thoughts which can cause a series of adaptation problems like anxiety, depression and obsession. Because the intrusive thoughts have negative effects on individual adaptation, intrusive thoughts may affect Internet addiction, which is a type of adverse adaptation in the digital age. Based on the Limited Resource Model of Self-Control, we examined the impact of intrusive thoughts on Internet addition, the mediating effect of self-control, and the moderating effect of cognitive reappraisal. The participants of this study consisted of 371 students, these participants completed a battery of questionnaires, including Intrusive Thoughts Scale, Self-control Scale, Cognitive Reappraisal Scale and Internet Addiction Scale. Results showed that: (1)Intrusive thoughts positively predicted Internet addiction; Self-control negatively predicted Internet addiction. (2) Self-control played a mediating role between intrusive thoughts and Internet addiction. (3) The first half of the mediating effects of “intrusive thoughts — Self-control — Internet addiction” is influenced by cognitive reappraisal; The influence of intrusive thoughts was much stronger for individuals with low cognitive reappraisal compared to that for individuals with high cognitive reappraisal. With the deepening of Internet addiction research, scholars pay more attention to finding in-depth theory to explain the process of Internet addiction formation. They have studied the Internet addiction from cognitive-behavioral model of pathological Internet use, self-determination theory and ecosystem theory, but few studies based on the limited self-control theory. Self-control plays a central role as an impulsive control disorder in the development of Internet. Therefore, the limited self-control theory with self-control as its core provides an ideal theoretical direction for the study of Internet addiction. Future research can further examine whether there are other factors that influence Internet addiction by consuming self-control from this theory. This study suggests that intervention for Internet addiction should focus on the following aspects. Firstly, paying special attention to individuals who have experienced major stress events. Scholars have found that these individuals are more likely to experience intrusive thoughts, including natural disasters and bereavement. Secondly, cognitive training can be used to reduce intrusive thoughts, such as mindfulness therapy. Mindfulness emphasizes the acceptance of experience and can reduce the intrusive thoughts effectively. Finally, the negative impact of intrusive thoughts on Internet addiction can be weakened through instructional cognitive reappraisal. Whether it is spontaneous cognitive reappraisal or guided cognitive reappraisal, it will reduce the emotional response in stress situations. For individuals who is slow with using cognitive reappraisal, guided cognitive reappraisal can help them cope with intrusive thoughts, and then, reduce the risk of Internet addiction. Related Articles | Metrics

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儿童期心理虐待对青少年网络欺负的影响：领悟社会支持及性别的调节作用 2020, 43(2): 323-332.  Abstract ( )   PDF (741KB) ( )   近年来，随着信息时代的到来。网络欺负现象逐渐成为网络心理学研究的热点问题。青少年网络欺负的发生率约为60.8%，且每年都在呈增长的趋势，这对青少年正常的学习生活造成了严重的阻碍。以往的研究表明，儿童期心理虐待是青少年非适应性行为产生的加速催化机制，而领悟社会支持则是非适应性行为产生的抑制机制。故本研究主要探讨儿童期心理虐待对青少年网络欺负的影响，以及领悟社会支持起到的调节作用。 本研究以447名青少年作为被试（男生242人，女生205人，被试年龄范围为11~17岁，平均年龄为14.23±1.23岁），采用儿童期心理虐待问卷、网络欺负问卷及领悟社会支持量表进行调查。运用SPSS22.0及Mplus7.4统计软件进行数据处理，Harman单因素法表明，本研究不存在严重的共同方法偏差问题。 研究结果表明：（1）儿童期心理虐待与领悟社会支持呈显著负相关（r=-.14，p<.01），儿童期心理虐待与青少年网络欺负呈显著正相关（r=.44，p<.01），领悟社会支持与青少年网络欺负呈显著负相关（r=-.15，p<.01）；（2）结构方程模型显示，模型各指标均达到了临界值(2/df=2.84, GFI=.90, TLI=.91, CFI=.92, RMSEA=.07)；（3）儿童期心理虐待对青少年网络欺负具有显著的正向预测作用（β=.20，p<.001），领悟社会支持对青少年网络欺负具有显著的负向预测作用（β=-.11，p<.05），同时，儿童期心理虐待与领悟社会支持的交互项对青少年网络欺负具有显著的负向预测作用显著（β=-.19，p<.01），简单斜率检验表明，对于低领悟社会支持水平的青少年，儿童期心理虐待对网络欺负有显著的正向预测作用（β=.54，P<.001）；对于高低领悟社会支持水平的青少年，儿童期心理虐待对网络欺负的预测作用不显著（β=-.17，P>.05）；（4）儿童期心理虐待与性别的交互项对青少年网络欺负具有显著的正向预测作用（β=.29，p<.001），简单斜率检验表明，对于男青少年，儿童期心理虐待对网络欺负有显著的正向预测作用（β=.54，P<.001）；对于女青少年，儿童期心理虐待对网络欺负的预测作用不显著（β=.13，P>.05）； 由此可说明，儿童期心理虐待是青少年网络欺负出现的助推机制，而领悟社会支持和性别是青少年网络欺负出现的抑制机制，它可以弱化儿童期心理虐待对青少年网络欺负造成的创伤。 Related Articles | Metrics

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Technoference and Adolescent Smartphone Addiction: The Effect of Core Self-evaluations and Need Satisfaction Perceived Online Xin CHEN Yue Lin Liu qinxue 2020, 43(2): 355-362.  Abstract ( )   PDF (703KB) ( )   Smartphones now are very popular worldwide and have become an important part in our daily life. However, the excessive use of smartphone may result in smartphone addiction, and consequently lead to a series of negative outcomes. Notably, adolescence is the key period of individual development, and smartphone addiction have negative effects on adolescents’ physiological and development. To better prevent and intervene adolescent smartphone addiction, it is critical to explore the potential risk factors and underlying smartphone addiction. With development of digital technology, technology has already integrated into family life. Therefore, it is common for the interruptions in interaction due to using technology. Prior researchers has referred this phenomenon as “technoference” or “technology interference”. Recently, studies have found that technoference in parent-child interaction that is parent-child interaction is interrupted by parents’ using technology was an important risk factor for child or adolescent behavioral problems. However, few studies examine the relation between technoference in parent-child interaction and adolescent smartphone addiction. Also, according to the cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use, core self-evaluations may mediate the relation between technoference in parent-child interaction and adolescent smartphone addiction. Specifically, parent-child technoference may increase the risk of adolescent smartphone addiction through decreased core self-evaluations. In addition, based on compensatory satisfaction theory of pathological internet use, technoference in parent-child interaction may mediate the relation between technoference in parent-child interaction and adolescent smartphone addiction. In detail, technoference in parent-child interaction may increase the risk of adolescent smartphone addiction through increased need satisfaction perceived online. The present study aims to investigate the effects of technoference in parent-child interaction on adolescent smartphone addiction, and further explore the mediating effects of core self-evaluations and need satisfaction perceived online. A sample of 4372 students (49.68% males; Mage = 14.01 years, SD = 1.67) completed Technology Interference in Life Examples Scale, Core Self-Evaluation Scale, Online Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction Scale, and Smartphone Addiction Scale for College Students, SPSS 21.0 and SPSS macro PROCESS were used to manage and analyse data, and bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method was used to examine the mediating effects of core self-evaluations and need satisfaction perceived online. The results indicated that: (1) Technoference in parent-child interaction positively predicted adolescent smartphone addiction. (2) Core self-evaluations mediated the relation of technoference in parent-child interaction to adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Specifically, technoference in parent-child interaction negatively predicted adolescent smartphone addiction (β = -.30, p < .001). (3) Need satisfaction perceived online mediated the relation between technoference and adolescent smartphone addiction. Specifically, technoference positively predicted need satisfaction perceived online (β = -.20, p < .001), and need satisfaction perceived online positively predicted adolescents’ smartphone addiction (β = -.34, p < .001). These findings highlighted the negative effect of technoference in parent-child interaction on adolescent smartphone addiction. The results also revealed the underlying mechanism of how technoference in parent-child interaction influence adolescent smartphone addiction. Moreover, the present study extended previous researches and provided empirical implications for the prevention and intervention of adolescent smartphone addiction. Based on the present study, it is extremely important to apply technology devices healthily to family life, cultivate adolescents to form correct self-evaluation and fully satisfy adolescents’ psychological needs in real life. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence Factors and Intervention Promotion of Children’s Analogical Reasoning 2020, 43(2): 386-392.  Abstract ( )   PDF (292KB) ( )   As a core feature of human intelligence, analogical reasoning is the process of drawing relationships between representations, specifically between prior knowledge and new situations or between representations of two domains. Previous studies have put forward many theories to explain children’s difficulties in solving analogical problems. Theories like ‘capacity limitation’, ‘knowledge limitation’ and ‘relational shift’ have provided some explanations in these difficulties, which promoted the development of children’s analogical reasoning. Based on the theories above, recently researchers try to investigate the influence factors of analogical reasoning from the perspectives of inhibitory control, working memory and analogical reasoning strategies. Inhibitory control and working memory have been demonstrated the crucial role in children's analogical reasoning by some behavioral studies. However, the interaction mechanism between inhibitory control and working memory in the development of analogical reasoning has not proved. Different studies with different paradigms may lead to different results. And the interference settings of these studies may need further consideration. Research involving computational model has?provided a new perspective for exploring the relationship between working memory and inhibitory control, capacity limitation and knowledge limitation. By using the computer model, researchers can control the input variables and compare their predictions with human performance in controlled experiments, which helps to clarify the role of some variables. Besides, analogical reasoning strategies have been proved to be an important influence factor of analogical reasoning. The use of eye movements helps researchers distinguish the analogical reasoning strategies of adults and children, proving that the project-first strategy is conducive to help children avoid the attraction of perceptual or distracted lure in the process of analogical reasoning. Research on the mechanism of children's analogy reasoning enables educators to foster students’ analogical reasoning. It has proposed by some researchers that providing a systematic guide for children in analogy can help them develop a powerful reasoning system and promote a deeper understanding of concepts in different disciplines. Language labels can help children focus on the similarity and shift from perceptual similarity to relational similarity, which are proved to be an effective way to facilitate children’s analogical reasoning. There exists another way to help children in analogical reasoning besides language labels. It was proved that the use of physical object representation of the relations is as useful as language labels to 4 years old children in analogical reasoning. Further studies?in children’s analogical reasoning can conduct in many perspectives. Firstly, the interaction between working memory and inhibitory control is still uncertain. Appropriate and uniform experimental materials can be used to further explore the interaction mechanism between inhibitory control and working memory. Secondly, according to Sternberg (1977), successful analogical reasoning requires four sub-processes: encoding, inference, mapping,?and application. There are few studies about the encoding and inference of analogy reasoning at present, which requires further exploration. Lastly, it has been demonstrated that Project-fist strategy is conducive in analogical reasoning. Investigating the use of analogical reasoning strategies for intervention can be a potential direction, and the relationship between different analogical strategies and intervention is worth further discussion. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Double-edged Effect and Mechanism of displays of Anger by Leaders on Leadership Performance 2020, 43(2): 402-408.  Abstract ( )   PDF (853KB) ( )   Within organizations individuals are often subject to one or more of a plethora of emotions, of note is the relatively large effect size of negative emotions compared to others. Anger, the most frequent negative emotion experienced in the workplace, typically combined with an urge or change another person’s behavior. Leaders often use emotions to guide subordinates to act in the way they desire, sometimes this can entail the use of anger to meet the demands of a specific task or situation. Follower reactions to leaders' anger at work have a strong impact on whether organizational goals are accomplished or not. As such, leaders’ moods may ultimately impact their performance. In past years, Leadership anger is often thought to have an adverse effect on leadership performance. For example, leaders who express anger are thought to un-inspirational leaders. long-term expression of anger by leaders lead to the perception of tyranny by subordinates and they are judged to have lower leadership effectiveness. However, in recent years, more and more research shows that the expression of anger by leaders also has possible beneficial impacts on leadership performance. Social psychologists believe that leaders who more freely express anger are also more freely indulging in the privileges of their higher status and in turn are regarded as more capable by others. Managers believe that moderate and proper expression of anger is beneficial to leadership effectiveness. The expression of anger by leadership has an immediate effect on correcting subordinates' bad behavior. In some contexts, leadership anger may play a significant role in promoting employee performance. In summary, we suggest that anger has an adverse effect on its leadership performance, but may also have beneficial effects, that is, there is a "double-edged effect" of anger on leadership. This paper examines prior research on the effects of anger on leadership performance according to principles of the Performance-Maintenance(PM) theory. Researchers have come up with many different theoretical models to explain the negative effects of negative emotions in organizations, but they cannot provide explanations for the double-edged effects of the emotion of anger. While double-threshold model elaborates on the positive and negative effects of different kinds of anger expression in an organization. This paper applies the model's interpretation of the double-edged effect of anger emotions to situations in which leader’s express anger, focusing on the effects of expressing anger by leaders on their leadership performance. Furthermore, we discuss the implications of double-threshold model's interpretation of the double-edged effect within an organizational cultural context where the power distance is both either high or low, and in this way we present a relationship model diagram on the interplay between organizational culture and leader anger built upon the double-threshold model. Future studies may choose to focus on: (1) Identifying the possible moderating factors between the two main effects of the double-edged effect of leader anger; (2) Investigating the influence of leader anger on decision-making behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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When is the Concealment between Close Colleagues Terminated? The Boundary Condition of the Effect of Guanxi on Whistle-blowing Intention 2020, 43(2): 423-429.  Abstract ( )   PDF (727KB) ( )   Under the influence of Confucian relativism, Chinese decisions are often influenced by guanxi. Thus, Chinese employees may be partial to colleagues who have close guanxi with them. This will have a potential negative effect on the organization. Given that few studies have focused on how to reduce the negative effect of guanxi on whistle-blowing behavior in unethical situations, this study examined the effect of guanxi on employees' whistle-blowing intention, and explored the potential moderating variables (i.e., organizational guanxi orientation and employee integrity) in the above relationship. In order to test the above hypotheses, this study used two experimental designs and a field survey study to examine the moderating factors between guanxi and employees' whistle-blowing intention. Study 1 (N=208) was a 2 (guanxi: strong vs. weak) × 2 (organizational guanxi orientation: high vs. low) between-subjects factorial design. The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating role of organizational guanxi orientation. Study 2 (N=118) was a 2 (guanxi: strong vs. weak) × 2 (integrity: priming vs. non-priming) between-subjects factorial design. The purpose of this study was to examine the moderating role of integrity. Study 3 (N=205) was a field survey study. The purpose of this study was to provide external validity support to our hypotheses. Results showed that guanxi was negatively related to employees' whistle-blowing intention (Studies 1~3). Further moderating analyses found that the negative effect of guanxi on employees' whistle-blowing intention was moderated by organizational guanxi orientation (Studies 1 and 3) and employee integrity (Studies 2 and 3). For those high guanxi orientation organizations or low integrity employees, guanxi had a significant suppressed effect on the employee's whistle-blowing intention. However, for those low guanxi orientation organizations or high integrity employees, the relationship between guanxi and the employee's whistle-blowing intention was not significant. The above conclusions have some important theoretical and management implications for employee guanxi management and the design of whistle-blowing system. First, the present study revealed that the relationship between guanxi and employees' whistle-blowing intention in China was different from that of Western culture. Thus, managers should use different methods to manage guanxi in different countries. In China, for those departments that are prone to corruption, managers should focus on supervising those employees with good guanxi and take rotation plans when necessary to prevent a conspiracy to commit corruption and malpractice. Second, for the organizational managers, diluting the guanxi orientation within the organizations, advocating contract-based management practices and recruiting employees with high integrity will reduce mutual concealment behavior of employees with good guanxi, which in turn promote organizational employees' whistle-blowing intention to unethical behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Logo Complexity and User Types on Memory Reconstruction 2020, 43(2): 465-471.  Abstract ( )   PDF (697KB) ( )   Humans’ long-term memory have an immense capacity for object visual detail, and they typically remember objects which they have frequently been exposed. However, prior researches have shown that people have exceptionally poor memory for the features of some objects even if they have been exposed over the course of many years; but more people believed that they have higher levels of confidence for their recall and recognition. It might be associated with memory reconstruction. At the same time, there are some evidences supported that objects memory was affected by its complexity. Therefore, the present study conducted two experiments to explore the effect of the mobile phone logo complexity on the different users’ memory reconstruction. Generally, logos are often designed to recall and recognition, however, the present study assumed that the memory performance was affected by objects complexity, and there were difference between simple and complex logo. Experiment 1 conducted a single factor experimental design, the dependent variable was the scores of drawing logos. Participants were asked to draw the logo of mobile phone which included both simple and complex types, and they were given as much time as needed to make their drawings. The results of Experiment 1 showed that the complexity is an important factor for logos memory, participants’ recall performance of simply logo better than complex logo. Meanwhile, participants’ memory performance were lower for all logos although both kinds of logo were common. There results consistent with the conclusion of previous researches, but because Experiment 1 did not investigate participants’ confidence for their memory, then the results couldn't supply evidences for peoples' meta-cognition changes. In Experiment 2, we conducted two experiments included 2a and 2b, the meta-cognitive changes were discussed through the factors of self-confidence judgment before and after logo drawing task. Participants were asked to draw two kinds of logo on two blank sheets of test paper, and indicated their confidence regarding the overall accuracy of their drawing on a 10-point scale when they before started the drawing task or finished it. The present study assumed that the memory of complex logo is worse than simple logo, which is also due to the worse memory construction of complex logo; meanwhile, there was significant difference between their self-confidence judgment before and after the logo drawing task. Experiment 2 results showed that there were significant differences in memory performance between simple logo and complex logo, and the confidence scores were higher under the before drawing task condition. However, the confidence scores were lower under the after drawing task condition. In addition, participants have too much confidence in themselves when some familiar objects were frequent exposed to them, but such frequent exposure did not reliably affect their memory. And for complex logo, participants’ confidence rating were closer to the actual performance because information searching takes up cognitive resources, which reduced confidence assessment and memory performance. So people could accurately adjust their cognitive judgment according to the retrieval of every detail of the logo. These findings might provide more support for the theories of memory, attention and attention saturation, and also have an important impact on the development of memory construction theory. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Social Crowding Priming on Perceptual Sensitivity to Threatening Facial Expressions 2020, 43(2): 452-458.  Abstract ( )   PDF (692KB) ( )   Social crowding is related to negative emotional experiences, concrete or low-level cognitive construal and even aggressive behaviors. Researchers have proposed that these consequences of crowding may reflect the defensive responses following violation of personal space. It has been demonstrated that personal proximity activates the amygdala which is sensitive to threatening information. Even a visually approached threatening face would increase people’s interpersonal distance preferences. On the other side, correctly recognizing others’ angry or fearful facial expressions plays a crucial role in social interaction. How does the feelings of crowded affect people’s reaction to angry or fearful expressions? To answer this question, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of social crowding priming on perception of threatening facial expressions within the framework of Signal Detection Theory (SDT). SDT allows for an inspection on both discriminability (d′: an index of perception sensitivity) and judgement criteria (β: an index of response bias) independently. Twenty-eight undergraduates participated in the experiment. A priming paradigm was applied to evoke the feelings of crowding with socially crowded pictures. And two additional types of priming pictures (visually clustered, and uncrowded) were used as control stimuli. In each trial, a face picture with either threatening or neutral expression was following a priming picture. Participants were required to judge whether the emotion on each face picture was threatening or not, for both the angry-neutral and fearful-neutral recognition tasks, respectively. These 3(crowding conditions) × 2(emotion recognition tasks) conditions were presented in separate blocks, with 10 threatening and 10 neutral face pictures in each block. After the recognition, participants also rated the emotional face for level of emotional strength with a 9-point scale. Automatic physiological responses, including skin conductance, finger pulse, finger temperature and respiration, were recorded continuously throughout the whole procedure by ProComp infinitiTM (Thought Technology Ltd, Canada). The physiological responses during a passive viewing phase preceding the emotion recognition task, while participants were viewing the three types of priming without any behavioral task, were analyzed and validated the manipulation of the visual priming of crowdedness. Results showed that social crowding affected the discriminability (d′) rather than the response bias (β) in the angry expressions discriminative task. Specifically, when being required to report whether a facial expression was angry or neutral, participants’ discriminability (d′) was reduced under the social crowding priming condition as compared to the uncrowded condition. However, in the fearful expression discrimination task, neither the discriminability (d′) nor the response bias (β) was affected by the social crowding priming. Furthermore, higher emotional strength rating was reported for angry expressions when primed with social crowding than uncrowded pictures. No significant difference between crowding conditions was found for the strength ratings of fearful or neutral expressions. In addition，compared to angry expression, fearful expression processing was related to higher discriminability, lower response bias, and shorter latency. These results indicated the selective effects of social crowding on the processing of angry facial expressions. When people feel crowded, it is possibly the early perceptual disruption rather than the response related bias that underlies the impaired discrimination of angry expression. Related Articles | Metrics

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Sharing unfairness decreases unfairness perception 2020, 43(2): 472-479.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1129KB) ( )   Abstract: In daily life, people often co-experience unfairness along with others. Previous research has examined the effect of experiencing unfairness alone on an individual’s unfairness perception. However, there is a dearth of research focusing on examining the effect of co-experiencing unfairness with others on unfairness perception. Such co-experience of unfairness is important not only because of it likely prevalence in day-to-day situations, but because it is able to address a theoretically important question. That is, does the presence of a co-experiencer decrease the unfairness perception and therefore serve a protective role of mitigating the consequences of being unfairly treated? Three studies were designed to investigate whether and why the co-experience of unfairness with others affected individuals’ unfairness perception. Specifically, we proposed that people would feel lower unfairness perception when they co-experience unfairness with others, compared to when they experience the unfairness alone; this is because in the co-experience of unfairness individuals would pay more attention to the similar others (the other responder) than to the proposer. In Study 1, participants were randomly assigned to a 2(co-experience, alone) × 2(fairness, unfairness) between-subject design to play the Ultimatum Game (UG), where the participants acted as the responders. In the co-experience of unfairness condition, the proposer kept the majority of the money for himself or herself (e.g., 8 of the 12 RMB), while allocating a very small proportion to the two responders (e.g., each of the responders obtained 2 of the 12 RMB). In the unfairness alone condition, the proposer allocated more money to himself or herself, as well as to the other responder (e.g., 5 of the 12 RMB for each of them) than to the participant who also acted as a responder (the remaining 2 of 12 RMB). In the co-experience of fairness condition, the proposer allocated the money to himself or herself, as well as to the other two responders equally (e.g., each of them obtained 4 of the 12 RMB). In the fairness alone condition, the proposer allocated much more money to himself or herself and to the participant (e.g., each one obtained 5 of the 12 RMB) than to the other responder (obtained 2 of the 12 RMB). The results provided persuasive evidence for the hypothesis that the co-experience of unfairness decreased the perception of unfairness. Study 2 replicated these findings by controlling the amount of money that the participants obtained in the co-experience of unfairness condition and the alone condition. Study 2 also ruled out one possible explanation for the findings, that is, that it was the experience of unfairness alone that increased the unfairness perception. Using an eye-tracking system, Study 3 showed that when participants co-experienced unfairness with others, much of their attention, as indexed by dwell time, fixation count, and transitions, was paid to the gains of the other responder, leading to the lower unfairness perception that they reported. These results supported the hypotheses that people feel lower unfairness perception when they co-experience unfairness with others because they pay more attention to the similar others (the other responder) than to the proposer. The results have implications for reducing an individual’s unfairness perception in social contexts. Key words: co-experience; unfairness perception; social comparison; eye-tracking system Related Articles | Metrics

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Association between the Dopamine D4 Receptor （DRD4）Gene and Prosocial Behavior Xi LI 2020, 43(2): 409-415.  Abstract ( )   PDF (310KB) ( )   Prosocial behavior refers to positive interactions with others, including helping, sharing, cooperating and comforting. Such social interactions are relevant to a variety of psychosocial adjustment outcomes, such as academic performance, depression and externalizing disorders. There is growing evidence for the importance of genes and its interactions with environmental factors in the development of prosocial behavior. In particular, a genetic polymorphism in the exon III repeat region of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene has been the focus of interest regarding prosocial behavior. Specifically, the existing research has examined direct effect of DRD4 gene on prosocial behavior and found that 4R allele carriers exhibited more prosocial behavior compares to other genotype carriers. Studies regarding empathy has provided supports for the association between DRD4 gene and prosocial behavior, and further implied potential gender differences in these associations. Notably, given the lack of relevant studies, what is less well understood are the gender difference in the relationship between DRD4 and prosocial behavior. Moreover importantly, DRD4 genes often interact with environment factors in their effects on prosocial behavior. However, mixed findings were obtained. Some studies found that the interactions between DRD4 and family environment were significantly associated with prosocial behavior. Specifically, children with 7R alleles experiencing positive family environment reported higher levels of prosocial behavior but reported less prosocial behavior when experiencing negative family environment. But these effects were not confirmed in other studies assessing peer environmental factors. One possibility is that the vulnerability of DRD4 gene may vary across developmental periods. Besides, researchers also examine the interaction of distal environmental factors such as religion and the birth season and the DRD4 gene VNTR polymorphism on children’s prosocial behavior. Consistent with results from gene by family factor interactions, individuals with low activity alleles were more sensitive to environments. The interaction between DRD4 and environment on prosocial behavior have been commonly discussed, but the underlying mechanisms that why the G × E interaction influence prosocial behavior remains unclear. The gene-brain-behavior framework and neurobiological evidence suggest that specific brain regions implicated in emotional process and reward pathway may mediated the associations between DRD4 and prosocial behaviors. The existing body of genetic studies on prosocial behavior implied that the DRD4 gene is implicated in the development of prosocial behavior. But gaps remain in furthering the understanding of mixed results and the mechanism why the G × E operates to influence prosocial behavior. Therefore, future studies should focus on: (a) testing the dynamic changes in gene-environment interactions over development; (b) exploring the gender difference in the association between DRD4 and prosocial behavior; (c) recognizing the multifaceted nature of prosocial behavior by conducting multitrait–multimethod studies; (d) investigating the underlying neurobiological mechanisms between DRD4 gene and prosocial behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Payment vs. retaliation: Impact of cost form on third-party punishment 2020, 43(2): 416-422.  Abstract ( )   PDF (427KB) ( )   Previous studies have explored the impact of sanction costs on third-party punishment (TPP) from the perspective of violators and punishers: no statistical difference has been found in the reduction of uncooperative behaviors between conditions when the amount of sanction costs is different, whereas an inverse relationship between amount of costs and frequency of punishing has been documented. However, one shortcoming of previous research is the neglect of the impact of different cost forms on TPP. The cost form was addressed in this paper as another significant determinant of the level of TPP after controlling for the effect of the amount of punishment costs. Three experiments were conducted to examine the influence of cost form on TPP. Experiment 1 analyzed the effect of two different cost forms (payment and retaliation) on the frequency of TPP. 180 university students participated in a five-round Dictator Game, which used a between-subjects design. All participants played the role of third-party and made punishment decisions for each of the five unfair offers presented in random order. If the participants decided to punish, those in the Payment treatment paid 2 monetary units (MU), while the payoff of those in the Retaliation treatment would be reduced by 2MU by the punished. Experiment 2 (with 184 participants) examined the influence of risk on TPP. The participants played a one-shot Dictator Game in which their payoff would be reduced by the punished if they decided to impose a sanction. The participants in the Certainty treatment were presented with the information that the probability of retaliation by the punished was 100% and the amount reduced was 1MU, while the information presented to the Uncertainty treatment was that the probability of retaliation was 50% and the amount reduced was 2MU. Experiment 1 was replicated in the first part of Experiment 3 (with 180 non-student participants), and after that, all the participants were asked to declare the amount of compensation they needed if they were required to withdraw all the punishment decisions. The results of Experiment 1 showed that the punishment frequency of the participants in the Retaliation treatment was significantly lower than that of those in the Payment treatment. Experiment 2 found no statistical difference in punishment frequency between the Uncertainty treatment and the Certainty treatment, suggesting that although the participants in the two treatments in Experiment 1 faced different levels of risk when required to make the sanction decision, difference in the sanction frequency in Experiment 1 was not caused by the risk aversion of the participants. Experiment 3 found that the results of Experiment 1 were robust, and the regression analysis showed that the different subjective values assigned by the participants to the different cost forms had a significant impact on the punishment frequency. This paper found evidence that after controlling for the effect of the amount of punishment costs, the participants had different subjective perceptions of different cost forms, suggesting that it is the individual’s subjective perception of the punishment costs rather than the objective amount that affects the level of TPP. One the other hand, despite being to some extent genuinely nonstrategically motivated, TPP is sensitive not only to the amount of punishment costs, but also to the cost forms, which leads to the belief that the real effect of TPP may have been overestimated. Related Articles | Metrics

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Ethnic Contact Weakens Ethnic Essentialism:the Mediating Role of Cultural Identity and Cultural Similarity Cheng-Hai GAO 2020, 43(2): 445-451.  Abstract ( )   PDF (720KB) ( )   Abstract: Previous research shows that ethnic essentialism has negative influence on many aspects for interpersonal and intergroup relationship—such as ethnic essentialism would increases the cognition of intergroup differences, individuals who hold strong ethnic essentialism beliefs has more vehement stereotypes and prejudices towards other ethnic groups, and ethnic essentialism also hinder the cross-ethnic interaction and cultural adaptation, meanwhile ethnic essentialism is "the legal reason" that mainstream groups maintain unequal social status, etc.. Therefore, the current study only examines the negative influence of ethnic essentialism on interpersonal and intergroup relationship, has not yet explored whether ethnic essentialism can change. Supposed it can be changed, which factors can be used to change the mechanism? According to perspective from intergroup contact theory, this study examines the mechanism of weakening ethnic essentialism beliefs from an intergroup contact theory perspective. Study 1 selected 670 ethnic minority and mainstream groups of college students in China as subjects, using the questionnaire method to investigate three core variables—include ethnic contact, ethnic essentialism and contact attitude—and the relationship between among 3 variables would be analyzed. Results of this study show that for minority subjects, there is a significant negative correlation between ethnic contact and ethnic essentialism, for mainstream group subjects, although there is negative correlation but without significance; and there is a significant positive correlation between ethnic contact and ethnic contact attitude. Study 2 selected 241 minority college students as subjects to investigate four variables —ethnic essentialism, cultural identity, cultural similarity perception and ethnic contact (with majority group), and to examine the mediating role of cultural identity and cultural similarities between ethnic contact and ethnic essentialism. The result shows that culture similarity is positively correlated ethnic contact, while cultural identity and ethnic contact showed a significant negative correlation; cultural identity and cultural similarity plays a mediating role between ethnic contact and ethnic essentialism. In conclusion, it can be analyzed from this research results, the author argue that ethnic contact can weaken ethnic essentialism, promote interaction among the ethnic groups and improve ethnic relations. the mechanism that ethnic contact weakens ethnic essentialism is that it strengthens cultural similarity perception between ethnic groups and decreases ingroup cultural identity. Therefore, in the practice of promoting ethnic relations, it is necessary to create opportunities for contact and communication among ethnic groups to reduce prejudice by weakening ethnic essentialism, which can promote positive ethnic relationship. This research enriches the conclusion on psychological mechanism of intergroup contact improving intergroup relations, and deepen the understanding about ethnic essentialism, which also contribute to relevant theory and practice. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact and Neural Correlates of Sleep Loss on Interpersonal Interactions 2020, 43(2): 438-444.  Abstract ( )   PDF (571KB) ( )   Sleep is important for our physical and mental health. Over the past decade, researchers have begun to focus on the impact of sleep loss on social interaction. The current article systematically reviews these studies and points out directions for further investigation. In terms of social emotion, interpersonal interaction involves a variety of prosocial and antisocial emotions, such as empathy and irritability/anger. Both correlational and experimental studies have found that emotional and cognitive empathy decrease with sleep loss, whereas irritability/anger increases with sleep loss. In terms of social behavior, interpersonal interaction refers to two, opposite types of behaviors. One is prosocial behaviors, which decrease with insufficient sleep. Specifically, sleep-deprived individuals are more selfish, distrustful of others, prone to betray others’ trust, easily discontented with money sharing proposals, and being lonelier and less drawn into social interaction. The other is aggressive behavior, which has been reported by many studies to exhibit a positive correlation with sleep loss. That is, the poorer the sleep, the more or stronger the aggressive behavior. However, evidence from several experimental studies was mixed. According to a dual-process theory, the diminished functional connectivity between emotional and cognitive systems may account for the changes after sleep loss. Such neurocognitive mechanisms act on social emotion in two ways: in regards to the top-down process, the inhibitory control of emotion from the cognitive system would be weakened, resulting in a saturated and flattened response to emotional stimuli. This explains why sleep-deprived people are more irritable and angrier at negative stimulation. In regards to the bottom-up process, cognitive system would fail to integrate information from the emotional system into higher-level cognitive judgement and decision-making, which means that although reactions from emotional system to stimulation are intensified, without cognitive integration, advanced cognitive functions such as emotion discrimination, internal mapping of one’s own affective state, and the ability to simulate the feelings of others, would be blunted. As a result, both emotional and cognitive empathy are disrupted after sleep loss. As for social behavior, the diminished functional connectivity between emotional and cognitive systems, specifically the disrupted bottom-up integration, may impair the motivational influence of social emotion on social behavior, leading to an indirect impact on social behavior after sleep loss. At the same time, the inhibitory cognitive control over behavior would also be weakened after sleep loss, resulting in a direct impact. Under the combined influence, although the motivation effect of anger/irritability on aggressive behavior may be diminished, enhanced irritability/anger and disrupted cognitive inhibition for behavior after sleep loss jointly increase aggressive behavior with insufficient sleep; moreover, the impaired role of empathy in facilitating prosocial behavior, blunted empathy, and deficits in cognitive control over prosocial behavior jointly decrease prosocial behavior after sleep loss. Further studies should investigate the effect of sleep deprivation on high-level social emotions such guilt and gratitude and the motivational influence of social emotion on social behavior via sleep restriction, which has high ecological validity. Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of power and status on trust behavior 2020, 43(2): 459-464.  Abstract ( )   PDF (288KB) ( )   Trust is very important to facilitate and maintain social interaction for both individuals, and organizations.Power and status are important vertical dimensions in interpersonal relationships and can have important impacts on people's cognition and behavior. Recent research has shown that power can negatively predict trust, that is, low-power people have a higher level of trust in others than high-power people. In contrast, studies have shown that social status is predicting trust—subjects with high social status will show a higher level of trust behavior.The lack of distinguishing the concept of power and status could be the reason for the inconsistent findings. Recent research shows that power mainly refers to the degree of individual control over others, emphasizing the self-perspective perspective, and the status mainly emphasizes the extent to which individuals are perceived to be respected by others, emphasizing the perspective of others. According to this view, power negatively predicts trust, and status is positively predicting trust. Driven by this view, this study manipulated power and status in the same experiment, and then observed the influence of power and status on trust. In addition, previous studies have regarded trust and distrust as a continuous unified dimension, and recent research shows that trust and distrust are two independent dimensions.Trust refers to the disposition to produce positive expectations on other under risk condition, whereas distrust refers to the disposition to avoid being hurt by a counterpart. Given trust and distrust have different antecedents, the second aim of the present study is to examine the effects of power and status on trust. Two experiments were conducted to examine the effects of power and status on trust and distrust. Experiment 1 used a single-factor completely random experiment design to explore the effects of power on both trust and distrust behavior through the trust game task and the distrust game task. Experiment 2 used two factors (power: high, low) x2 (status: high, low) design to explore the opposite effect of power and status on trust, while further verifying the influence of power and status on distrust. The two experiments were divided into three steps. First, the power or/and status are manipulated. Secondly, the experimental process of completing the trust task and the distrust task is completed. Finally, the manipulation of the independent variable is checked. The results are as follows: (1) The sense of power and status of the participants have an impact on the behavior of trust. Compared with the high-power subjects, those with lower- power have higher level of interpersonal trust; compared with the subjects with lower social status, the subjects with higher status show higher level of interpersonal trust.(2) The sense of power and status of the participants independently affect their level of interpersonal trust. There is no interaction between them. (3) There is no significant difference in the influence of the power and status of the participants on their distrust behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Nudge:The effect of default options on the online purchase of accidental insurance for older adults quan HE 2020, 43(2): 430-437.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1041KB) ( )   Accident insurance for older adults has the advantages of low premium, high security, and wide coverage. It has been actively promoted in various provinces of China and can effectively reduce the economic burden of older adults and their families. However, in practice, the willingness of insurance companies to undertake or engage in this project is low because of the high operating costs. One of the strategies that could make the project work properly is increasing the average amount of the insurance purchase. Behavioral insurance theory emphasizes the behavioral factors that influence how people purchase insurance. This study aimed to explore whether a defaulting strategy could promote the purchase of accidental insurance for older adults through three studies. Study 1 analyzed the impact of different default option settings on purchase behavior based on the actual purchasing data from Hangzhou City. Since two of the companies that undertook the promotional work had different settings for the default amount (one and four by default) when selling insurance online, we compared the specific impact of both default options. Study 2 used a quasi-experimental design to compare the impact of different default settings on the number of purchases. Furthermore, we also tried to explore whether different rendering methods (tiling vs. increasing or decreasing) would affect the number of purchases to differentiate the effect from the default options presented in Study 1. Therefore, the second study used a 2 (presentation form: tile vs. increase or decrease) x 2 (default option: five copies vs. one share) factor design. To simulate a real situation, six college students were recruited as insurance salesmen to promote the simulated product in the campus with a leaflet. A total of 171 participants were persuaded to purchase, by asking them to scan the quick response (QR) code with their mobile phone. The system randomly presented one of four designs. Finally, 78 participants completed all the requested information and therefore their data were regarded as valid and came into the final analysis. Study 3 explored the purchasing differences between the default option of five copies and without the default option in a tiled manner. Data collection was recruited during a psychology course, and a leaflet was issued asking the participants to choose to scan for insurance voluntarily. To increase enthusiasm, the participants were told that 20% of them would receive a 30-Yuan reward. Upon completion of the project, the researcher explained the purpose of the study. Finally, a total of 67 participants completed all information among 168 participants who were willing to purchase the insurance. The results of Study 1 demonstrated that setting the default option to a higher number of copies (four copies) promoted the average purchase amount compared to lower number of copies (one share). Study 2 found that setting the default option to the maximum number of purchases (five copies) significantly increased the purchase amount compared to setting the minimum purchase size (one share). The results of study 3 indicated that setting the default option to the highest number of copies can effectively promote the amount of insurance purchased. The three studies consistently showed that setting the default option to a higher number of purchases can effectively increase the purchase amount. The implementation of behavioral science in insurance management should be considered during future implementations of government insurance projects in China. Related Articles | Metrics

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Cross-cultural Differences in the Neurophysiological Correlations of Processing Positive and Negative Feedbacks: An ERP Study Yuan-Yuan YOU lin -zhang 2020, 43(2): 393-401.  Abstract ( )   PDF (863KB) ( )   In the process of human evolution, negative stimuli are often closely related to events that threaten human life. Human beings have special sensitivity to negative stimuli for the purpose of protecting life and adapting to survival. Negative stimuli have a certain priority in cognitive processing and are often of widespread concern to researchers. With the rise of positive psychology, positive stimuli are getting more and more attention. Positive stimuli are of great significance to the development of individuals and their adaptation to social life. They can usually promote cognitive processing in individuals. Therefore, in recent years, positive stimuli and cognition and other related topics have been widely researched by researchers. However, how people from different cultures react to positive stimulus similarly and differently has not been adequately studied. To fill this gap in the field, we examined cross-cultural differences in the neural physiological responses to different reward feedbacks by using the event-related potentials (ERPs) measurement in the present study. In this study, a total of 28 Chinese and 24 White Caucasian participants were recruited. The Door Task was used to examine the positive and negative feedback in different cultural groups. Continuous EEG was recorded after participants received different feedbacks. Feedback-related negativity(FRN) is a negative component occurring at approximately 200-300ms post stimulus presentation. FRN is related to positive and negative feedbacks and may reflects the expectation and evaluation of results. As a later ERP positive component, P3 is related to the valence and intensity of the reward and usually reflects a more exquisite assessment of the outcome, especially when encoding the motivational meaning of the outcome. As the typical biomarkers of reward processing, cross-cultural differences in the early ERP components (e.g., FRN) and later ERP components (e.g., P3) were examined. Results showed that negative feedback elicited more negative average amplitudes of FRN than in positive feedback condition in Chinese cultural group. There were no significant differences in the area amplitudes of FRN in Caucasians groups. The average amplitudes of P3 were larger in positive feedback condition than in negative feedback condition. In positive feedback condition, the amplitudes of P3 were lager in Chinese than in Caucasians. In negative feedback condition, there were no significant differences in the area amplitudes of P3 between two groups. For both cultural groups, the average amplitudes of P3 were lager in positive feedback condition than in negative feedback condition. In the present study, cross-cultural differences in reward feedback processing were mainly reflected in P3 component, while there was no difference in FRN between Caucasians and Chinese. The differences of individual reward processing in different cultural backgrounds are mainly reflected in positive feedback conditions. Activation of FRN component, as an indicator of avoidant response to stimulus, is related to BIS system, while P3 component is related to individual's motivation to approach, reflecting the activation of BAS system. Therefore, cross-cultural differences in reward feedback processing among individuals of different cultures are likely to be reflected in differences in BAS system rather than BIS system. Findings indicated that Chinese might have higher sensitivity to positive feedback stimuli. The significantly different electrical response characteristics show that the processing for positive and negative feedback stimuli are closely related to the culture context. Related Articles | Metrics

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Time-Varying Effect Model and Its Application in Intensive Longitudinal Data Wen-Qing TANG Jie Fang 2020, 43(2): 488-497.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1087KB) ( )   Intensive longitudinal method is a general term for a set of methods such as experience-sampling methodology, ecological momentary assessment, real-time data capture, and daily diary. This type of methods generally collect intensive longitudinal data with tens or hundreds of time points for each participant under real situation. Intensive longitudinal data was expected to contain detailed information regarding temporal, irregular dynamic changes, as well as time-varying effects of covariates on psychological outcome. While commonly used statistical methods of longitudinal data usually have a convention to assume a shape of change as a prespecified form (linear, quadratic or exponential), and the association between psychological outcome and covariate is constant over time. Although for some situations such two assumptions can be a convincing justified by a well-established theory, for most other situations, the actual course of changes might be quite complicated, interactions between psychological outcome and relevant covariates might also evolve over time. More advanced statistical models were needed for describing detailed development patterns and changing relationships between psychological outcome and relevant factors. In this paper, we present the Time-Varying Effect Model (TVEM) to analyze intensive longitudinal data to capture the temporal changes and time-varying effects of interest. We first introduced the mathematical formula and principle of TVEM, described process and technical details for fitting TVEM with penalty-spline method, then presented a simulation study to prove effectiveness and applicability of TVEM for intensive longitudinal data. In present simulation study, a model included one intercept function and two slope functions of two covariates was adopted. Two simulation conditions were considered, sample size condition was set to be 30,100,300,1000, knots of penalty-spline method condition was set to be 1,3,5,7,9. The maximum of absolute deviation(d), mean absolute deviation error(MADE) and 95% confidence interval were used as precision indexes of model fit，interaction effects between sample size and knots were investigated by MANOVA. Results showed that: (1) The accuracy of function estimation was affected by sample size, it would become more precise as sample size increased. (2) Selection of the number of knots is mainly depended on complexity of function, a simple function could be approximated with few spline functions, and a complicated function need more knots. When the number of knots is large enough, further increasing knots wouldn’t lead to significant change on d and MADE. (3) MANOVA results showed that, sample size had significant main effects on d and MADE of three functions, while number of knots only had a significant main effect on function , interaction effects between sample size and knots were not remarkable. In summary, the TVEM was proved to be an effective statistical method for analyzing intensive longitudinal data to study detail course of change and time-varying effects of covariates on psychological outcome. It could be used to explore inherently nonlinear longitudinal relationships, resulting in a model with temporal ups and downs. As the TVEM wasn’t been extensively studied, further researches should focus on problems about requirement of sample size, number of repeated assessments, impact of missing data, data distribution and error structure on the robustness of model estimation, and extension of TVEM to describe latent group heterogeneity on change process. Related Articles | Metrics

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Dissociation of Body Representation: The Dyadic Taxonomy Model and Evidence CHEN Wei Jing ZHANG 2020, 43(2): 498-504.  Abstract ( )   PDF (329KB) ( )   Knowing ourselves and controlling ourselves is something that we take for granted. However, in this ordinary phenomenon, it contains complex psychological mechanisms. Body representation plays an important role in it. Body representation is considered to be the mapping of the body in the brain and it is a coherent mental representation constructed by multiple sensory inputs. The view that body representation is separable was first proposed by neuropathologists Head and Holmes in 1911. After that, body representation as a multi-dimensional concept, has gained wide consensus. In the past ten years, with the body representation has received more and more attention, the body schema, body image, body structural description and body semantics have gradually entered people's field of vision. However, there is disagreement on the number and definitions of body representations. A dyadic taxonomy which is widely accepted in the current cognitive science suggests distinguishing between body schema and body image. Body schema consists in sensorimotor representations of the body that guide actions, and enables the body to unconsciously adjust the posture and movement, so that many meaningful parts of the world are integrated into our experience. Body image groups all the other representations about the body that are not used for action, whether they are perceptual, conceptual or emotional. It has been defined as a more stable and internal perceptual representation of the body. In order to find evidence supporting the dyadic taxonomy, we focused on patients with neurological disorders and healthy subjects involved in the rubber hand illusion experiment and its paradigm. For some patients with micromelia and brain-damaged, such as phocomelia, and autotopagnosia, they cannot correctly recognize themselves due to the dissociation of body representation. Although healthy individuals do not lose a certain part of the body representation, their perception of self will be biased because of multisensory conflict, which is resulted in rubber hand illusion and full-body illusion. We then explore the internal mechanism from the perspectives of consciousness and unconsciousness, top-down and bottom-up, which provide a strong basis for the validity of the dyadic taxonomy. Body schema is an unconscious, bottom-up and dynamic representation, relying on proprioceptive information and involved in enabling and monitoring motor actions. Body image is considered to be a more conscious, top-down, cognitive representation, mostly used to make perceptual judgements. In conclusion, we provide a lot of evidence for the rationality of the dyadic taxonomy. However, we also find that there are still many problems to be solved. First of all, the concept of body image is still controversial. Whether it can continue to separate is still unknown. Secondly, the internal separation basis of the dyadic taxonomy cannot completely separate the body schema from the body image. In other words, the body schema is closely related to the body image, and it is difficult to completely separate them. Furthermore, there are few empirical studies based on the dissociation of body representation. Therefore, future research needs to address the above problems, and sort out more systematic classification standards at the conceptual level to find a clearer boundary between the body schema and body image. In addition, virtual reality technology can be used for more in-depth research. Related Articles | Metrics

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The operational definitions of social class and the related issues in psychological research Shen-Long YANG Feng *Yu 胡小勇 2020, 43(2): 505-511.  Abstract ( )   PDF (334KB) ( )   In general, social class is a kind of social classification standard used to reflect the relative position of individuals in the social hierarchy. A person’s social class is defined as the objective social resources he controls (i.e. objective social class) and the level of his own social status he subjectively perceives (i.e. subjective social class). How to operationalize the concept of social class in psychological research? This is the first issue many researchers in this field have to face. Income (or property), occupation and education level are operational indicators commonly used in research to reflect the objective social class. But these three indicators, as the operational definition of objective social class, have certain defects. In terms of income and property, participants are usually reluctant to tell researchers their real levels. For occupations, individuals of the same occupation may have different social status. As for the level of education, people’s level of education is not always a good indicator of their actual social status. In short, all the three operational definitions are somewhat inadequate. Therefore, researchers sometimes measure multiple indicators at the same time and combine these scores into a total score of objective class. The operational definition of subjective class includes both questionnaire measurement and experimental manipulation. In addition to manipulating the participants’ subjective class, researchers sometimes also want to know the participants’ evaluation of other people’s social class and whether this perception of other people’s class will affect their psychological and behavioral results. Therefore, in such studies, researchers need to manipulate the social class of persons in their experimental materials. It can be seen that the operational indicators of social class is very complicated, so how to choose the appropriate operational definition in the study has become a problem. To this end, we put forward the following four suggestions. First, when considering the selection of operational indicators, it should be based on the research purpose and the hypothesized effects and mechanisms, and make clear which aspect of social class the research focuses on. Second, if we want to explore the effect of social class in general, we can consider using multiple operational definitions in the study. Third, it is not advisable to distinguish the social class level by selecting typical high-level and low-level class groups. Finally, we suggest that future researchers in this field should pay more attention to strengthening the reliability and validity of the empirical researches, and present more relevant information in the articles. Due to the complexity, there are still some problems to be further studied around the operational definition of social class. Future researchers should explore in depth the deviation between subjective class and objective class caused by class identification bias, as well as the inconsistency between static social class and dynamic social class caused by social class mobility. And the simplification of the effect of social class caused by sampling should also be further studied by researchers. In addition, it is also worth exploring to understand the differences between people’s definitions of social class with a cross-cultural perspective. Related Articles | Metrics