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The Influence of Cursor Mode on Human Performance and User Experience in Gaze Interaction 2022, 45(6): 1282-1289.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1217KB) ( )   The eye tracking technique provides a new tool to interact with computers. Using an eye tracker, the gaze direction is detected and transformed to coordinates on the screen (i.e., gaze point). And when the gaze point fixates on a target beyond dwell time, the target is selected. Due to the fact that the dwell-based approach just uses eyes to select a target, it is very useful for disable people that do not have enough motor control abilities. However, the jittery nature of human eyes usually makes the gaze-controlled cursor unstable, which would impair the task performance and user experience. To counteract the instability of gaze cursor, we proposed the gaze-lock method to better handle normal and involuntary eye movements. Another problem to explore is whether to present real-time gaze cursor to the user, researchers have different views on this issue, but these views are based on the fact that the gaze point is equivalent to the gaze cursor. However, in our newly proposed gaze lock method, the gaze cursor is not completely equivalent to the real-time gaze point, so we explored the influence of hiding the real-time gaze point on eye-computer interaction performance on the basis of gaze lock. In a dwell-based eye typing experiment, we compared four cursor modes: the conventional gaze cursor, the no cursor, the gaze-lock cursor, and the gaze-lock partial cursor. The conventional gaze cursor is displayed as a hollow circle and updates its position based on the gaze point directly. The no cursor hides the visible cursor on the basis of the conventional cursor. In the gaze-lock cursor mode, two modifications are introduced to the conventional gaze cursor. First, when the gaze cursor stays in the target area beyond 150ms, it becomes locked at the target center. Second, when the gaze point falls out of the target area, the locked cursor will not be unlocked unless the gaze point leaves the target beyond 50ms. In the gaze-lock partial cursor mode, one difference from the gaze-lock cursor is that the displayed gaze cursor appears at the target center only when it is locked and disappears when it is unlocked. Twenty adults (including 3 females) were recruited, all of them were experienced computer users and familiar with Chinese Pinyin. The experimental task was to type the “#” symbol and subsequent Pinyin, ignoring case, as shown in Figure 2. The participant began a practice session, and subsequently performed a formal test session. Both the practice and test session included 4 blocks corresponding to 4 experimental conditions. For each participant, 80 trials were collected in total. Repeated-measure ANOVA was used to perform statistic analysis of typing speed and gaze shift time, and the non-parametric Aligned Rank Transform procedure was used to perform statistic analysis of KSPC, MSD error rate and gaze focus time. The results showed:(1) The gaze-lock method significantly improved the typing speed while keeping the error rate at very low level, the presence of real-time gaze cursor has no significant impact on input performance. (2) The gaze-lock method and presence of real-time gaze cursor significantly reduced the gaze shift time, but no significantly effect on the gaze focus time.(3) Moreover, the gaze-lock cursor was most preferred by the participants, followed by gaze-lock partial cursor, while no cursor and conventional gaze cursor are less preferred. In summary, our findings demonstrate that the gaze-lock method could improve the human performance and user experience in eye typing tasks, and have good potentials to be used in other dwell-based gaze interactions. Related Articles | Metrics

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Processing Chinese Idioms: the Role of Idiom Structure and Familiarity 2022, 45(6): 1290-1296.  Abstract ( )   Idioms are fixed phrases and have a unified meaning. According to Multi-Constituent Unit (MCU) hypothesis, idioms maybe represented lexically as single representations during Chinese reading (Zang, 2019). There are two main structures of three-character idioms: modifier-noun (MN) and verb-object (VO) structures. Idioms with a MN structure are more like a long word due to the constraint of the modifier exerting over potential subsequent nouns than idioms with a VO structure, indicating that idiom structure might affect the processing of idioms. Furthermore, examining the role of idiom structure on its processing provides insight into the current theories of idiom representation. However, the previous research has not shown consistent results regarding this issue and the possible reason might be due to the familiarity of idioms not being carefully manipulated. The present study was to investigate whether idiom structure and familiarity exert an influence on idiom processing during Chinese reading. We manipulated structure (MN, VO) and familiarity (high, low) of idioms to clarify how the two variables affect idioms processing during Chinese reading. Idioms with a MN structure are comprised of a 1-character modifier and a 2-character noun (i.e., “贼+胆子”). Idioms with a VO structure are comprised of a 1-character verb and a 2-character object (i.e., “泼+脏水”). 128 idioms were selected as targets and embedded into 32 sentence frames. 104 students participated in the formal experiment and their eye movements were recorded when they read each sentence using Eyelink 1000 plus. Four files were constructed, with each file containing 32 sentences. Conditions were rotated across files according to a Latin Square design, and each participant read experimental sentences presented randomly from one of the four files. The 32 experimental sentences were mixed with 32 filler sentences, and 24 sentences were followed by yes/no questions. Besides, 12 practice sentences (including 4 question sentences) were presented at the beginning of the formal experiment. LMM models were carried out to analyze data. Results showed that the effects of familiarity were reliable, such that readers took significantly longer times processing low familiarity idioms than high familiarity idioms in all fixation time measures, indicating familiarity is an important factor during the processing of idioms. There was no reliable structure effect in first fixation duration, single fixation duration, gaze duration and skipping probability. However, the effect of structure was reliable in total fixation duration, a relative later eye movement measure, with MN structure associated with shorter time than VO structure, and this effect was modulated by idiom familiarity. Further analysis showed no significant difference between idioms with a different structure for high familiarity idioms, however, readers spent less total fixation duration on MN structure idioms than VO structure idioms for low familiarity idioms. In conclusion, our findings showed the structure of idiom affects the later processing of idioms during Chinese reading, and this effect was modulated by familiarity. Familiarity affects both early and later processing of idioms during Chinese reading. The current study has important implications for MCU hypothesis and theories of idiom processing. The results of current experiment support the hybrid model of idioms such that familiar idioms are represented as single units but unfamilar idioms are processed and modulated by their structure. Related Articles | Metrics

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Biological motion detection in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: behavioral and neural evidence 2022, 45(6): 1297-1305.  Abstract ( )   As one of the social stimulus, biological motion contains rich social cues, which enables individuals to understand body language and emotions expressed by others. There is a close relationship between the perception of biological motion and the abilities of imitation and joint attention, which are the important bases of later social and language development, so the perception of biological motion has a direct impact on individuals' social cognition and social interaction. Typical developing (TD) individuals show a bias of attention to biological motion from birth, and with the development, the mechanism of complex information processing of biological motion tends to mature. There are three levels of processing biological motion: detection, perception and interpretation. The first level refers to the identification of biological motion without an explicit recognition or categorization of the different types of biological motion. The second level perception refers to explicitly recognizing the different types of biological motion. The third level, interpretation of biological motion, implicates that an observer can retrieve high level social information, such as others' intention, emotional states or actions, conveyed in biological motion stimulus. Previous studies have shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) were impaired in the processing of high level biological motion information (perception and interpretation) compared with TD individuals, while there is a debate about whether the processing of low level biological motion information (detection) is impaired. Some behavioral studies demonstrated that individuals with ASD had impaired ability to detect biological motion, while other neural studies found that individuals with ASD exhibited normal behaviors but abnormal neural responses. The differences mentioned above are mainly caused by different stimuli, different tasks and different indices across studies. Neurological studies have found that the underlying mechanism of the impairment remains a debate among three theoretical hypotheses: abnormal social function based on the dysfunction of posterior superior temporal sulcus, abnormal visual motion perception based on the dysfunction of dorsal visual stream, and weak central coherent based on abnormal brain functional connection. The first hypothesis suggests that individuals with ASD exhibit reduced activation in the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), which leads to the impairment in the detection of social information such as biological motion. The second hypothesis shows that impaired dorsal visual stream in individuals with ASD results in abnormal visual motion perception, which leads to the impairment of biological motion detection. Furthermore, the third hypothesis indicates that the abnormality of brain functional connection in individuals with ASD leads to weak central coherent, which results in the impairment of biological motion detection. Based on the above theoretical hypotheses, this paper summarized the researches on biological motion detection in ASD from three aspects of research paradigms, behavior performance and underlying mechanism, to clarify the characteristics and underlying mechanism of biological motion detection impairments in individuals with ASD, so as to provide a certain direction for follow-up researches. Related Articles | Metrics

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Utility of Media Multitasking: Experimental Evidence of Auditory Interference and Visual-audio Integration 2022, 45(6): 1306-1313.  Abstract ( )   It is generally believed that media multitasking may negatively affect the execution of tasks, but some researchers have speculated that the multitasking experience would bring individuals richer attention resources and the adoption of attention allocation strategy in information processing. This means that experienced media multitaskers may be more tolerant of interference of irrelevant information than those with less experience and perform better in the integration processing of multi-sensory information. By adopting psychological rotation and lexical decision paradigms, two experiments were respectively conducted to explore the judgment performances of participants with different media multitasking experience on graphics consistency and true (or pseudo) words in the context of auditory information interference and audio-visual matching information. 140 participants were selected by using the Media Use Questionnaire. 35 participants (the top 25%) were assigned to high-experience group, and another 35 participants (the bottom 25%) were assigned to low-experience group. In total, 70 participants took part in the two experimental tasks. In experiment 1, the composite geometric figure was used as visual stimulus and the auditory condition was silence, short treble, or short bass. The auditory information was presented together with the visual information at the same time and the participants were asked to compare the original graphics with rotated ones and then tell the consistency of the two graphics. In experiment 2, taking true (or pseudo) Chinese characters as visual stimuli and the simultaneous presentation of Chinese words pronunciation as auditory stimuli, participants made lexical decision about true (or pseudo) words under the three conditions of silence, visual-auditory matching and visual-auditory mismatching. It is only in the case of true words that there is semantic consistency or inconsistency between visual and auditory stimuli. The results showed that: (1) Taking the judgment of graphics consistency as an experimental task, under the condition of silent and bass interference, the accuracy rate (AC) of low experience group was significantly higher than that of high experience group, while the difference of response time (RT) between the two groups was not significant. Under the condition of high voice interference, the RT of high experience group was significantly shorter than that of low experience group, and the AC had no significant difference. (2) Taking the judgment of true (or pseudo) words as an experimental task, for true words, under the three auditory conditions, the RT under the matching condition in the high experience group was the shortest, and its difference was not significant between high and low experience group. The AC of high experience group under the matching condition was significantly higher than that of low experience group, and there was no significant difference between the two groups under the other two auditory conditions. Under the matching condition, the RT of low experience group was significantly longer than that of the other two auditory conditions, and the AC was significantly higher than that of the silent condition. The difference of the AC between the condition of audio-visual matching and audio-visual mismatching was not significant in low experience group. For pseudo words, the RT of the low experience group was significantly shorter than high experience group in the three auditory conditions, and the AC was no significant difference between the two groups. This study indicate that compared with inexperienced media multitaskers, experienced media multitaskers are less interfered by irrelevant information and they have obvious advantages in the processing of integrating audio-visual channel information. The results also imply that those with media multitasking experience do have richer attention resources, wider attention spans, and more flexible attention allocation strategies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the Influence of Map-Reading Methods and Maps Difficulty on Orienteers' Map-Reading Decision Performance and Visual Search Characteristics 2022, 45(6): 1314-1321.  Abstract ( )   In orienteering, the map-reading efficiency of orienteers determines the outcome of competition. It is necessary for orienteers to identify map symbols and colors selectively, so as to plan routes. The visual search characteristics of orienteers in map reading directly affect orienteers' mapreading decision performance, and it is important for scientific training that understands the visual search characteristics of high-level orienteers in map reading and formulate special training schemes on map reading. With the development of eye-movement technology, orienteers' visual search strategies can be studied through eye-movement mode. Athletes have different visual search behaviors in different events where there are different special characteristics. Due to different task orientation of special map reading in orienteering, it can be divided into two methods of map reading: general map reading and accurate map reading. Therefore, what kind of visual search strategy does different task orientation lead to? Moreover, previous studies have found that task difficulty would affect the processing depth and understanding of subjects on stimulative materials, and also affect their information processing strategies. Under the condition of different map-reading methods, what is the impact of task difficulty on visual search strategies? In this experiment, 29 male orienteering athletes of the national orienteering team are selected. Their average age is 21.6 years old; their sports level is master's degree or above, and their experiences of sports all extend for over 6 years. Use 2 (map difficulty: simple and complex) × 2 (map-reading method: accurate map reading and general map reading) within-subject design. The dependent variable indicators are the subjects’ route decision accuracy, reaction time, fixation times, fixation frequency, saccade distance, and fixation trajectory when reading the map. Each trial consists of two stages: route planning and route sweeping. The screen first shows the instruction, and then a 500ms fixation appears. Afterwards, a random orienteering map appears. After the planning is completed, press the "space bar" and the map disappears. Another 200ms fixation then appears, looking at the same map in the route planning stage. At this time, the subject is asked to quickly scan with his eyes on the map according to the route just planned. After scanning, press the "space bar" to end, and enter the next trial. There is a total of 48 trials in this experiment. Their eye movements are recorded with Eyelink1000 plus eye tracker. The findings of this study are as follows: as the map becomes more difficult, the map-reading accuracy of orienteers decreases (p<.001), and the reaction time of general map reading increases (p<.001). Compared with simple maps, orienteering athletes have longer fixation time when observing complex maps (p<.001), lower fixation frequency (p<.001), and shorter saccade distances (p<.001). Compared with accurate map reading, they tend to have more fixation time (p<.001), higher fixation frequency (p<.001) and greater saccade distance (p<.001). In the process of general map reading, the orienteering athlete searches forward from the starting point under simple map conditions, whereas they search forward from the end point under complex map conditions, with a large and scattered gaze area. In the process of accurately reading the map, whether it is a simple map or a complex map, the orienteering athlete first searches the control description table of the control point and the end point, and the attention area is small and concentrated. We can draw the following conclusion: the difficulty of maps restricts the map-reading decision performance of orienteers. The visual search characteristics of orienteers are affected by the ways of map reading and the difficulty of maps, which lead to different visual search strategies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Negative Emotion on Associative Memory under Different Semantic and Spatial Conditions 2022, 45(6): 1322-1328.  Abstract ( )   It is generally believed that negative emotion can improve item memory, while impairing the association between items or between item-context picture pairs. However, recent research indicates that associative memory between two separate items also can be promoted, especially when the pair of items are unitized into a single unit. Both conceptual and perceptual manipulations can be used to unitize items, but few studies have compared these two methods of unitization within the same experiment directly. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how different semantic and spatial relationships would influence the associative memory between negative items and neutral contexts. The present study adopted picture-pairs consisting of negative item-neutral context and neutral item-neutral context as experimental materials. The semantic relationship was manipulated by controlling the semantic relevance of item-context pairs, and the spatial relationship was manipulated by controlling the spatial distance of item-context pairs. This study used the study-recognition paradigm. During the study phase, participants were presented with 48 negative item-neutral context pairs and 48 neutral item-neutral context pairs, in which half of the item-context pairs were related or contiguous. After the presentation of all picture-pairs, a mathematical task was presented for 5 minutes. During the test phase, an item image was first presented and participants were asked to identify the item was old or new. If participants recognized old items correctly, he or she would then be shown three context scenes and were required to make a decision on which scene had been originally presented with the recognized item. The current study was a three-factor design, in which item emotional type, semantic relationship, and spatial distance were all within-participant variables. The dependent variables were the accuracy of studied items and their intact backgrounds. The results showed that negative items were always remembered better than neutral items. However, the effect of negative emotion on associative memory would be modulated by semantic relationship and spatial relationship between items and contexts. Specifically, related item-context pairs were remembered better than unrelated item-context pairs, spatially contiguous item-context pairs were also remembered better than spatially separated item-context pairs. In addition, when items and contexts were presented in a spatially separated manner, associative memory performance of negative items was significantly lower than that of neutral items in unrelated condition, while associative memory performance of negative items was significantly higher than that of neutral items in related condition; when items and contexts were presented in a spatially contiguous manner, no matter items and contexts were related or unrelated, there was no significant difference in associative memory performance between negative items and neutral items, indicating that the effect of the semantic relationship was more pronounced in the spatially separated condition. In conclusion, these findings suggest the effect of negative emotion on associative memory can be modulated by semantic and spatial relationships between items and contexts. Increasing the conceptual integration and perceptual integration can promote item-context associative memory, and the role of semantic relationship in the effect of negative emotion on associative memory will be further influenced by the spatial relationship. Related Articles | Metrics

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The modulation of crossmodal semantic priming on visual attention 2022, 45(6): 1329-1336.  Abstract ( )   It is one of the most important abilities for human to make some predictions based on prior experience and to act accordingly. Previous studies reveal that prior experience stored in long-term memory could affect attention. In the real world, information usually comes from multiple sensory modalities, and attention may shift from the information in one sensory modality to the information in another modality. Previous studies support that there exists both spatial-based and object-based crossmodal attention. The present study aims to explore whether prior experience can guide visual selective attention crossmodally. By adopting prime stimuli from both the same and different modalities, we are also interested in the difference between intra-modal and crossmodal semantic priming on the modulation of visual selective attention. In the present study, a priming paradigm and a dot probe paradigm were combined to examine the effect of prior experience on crossmodal selective attention. In Experiment 1 and 2, a visual or auditory prime stimulus was presented, which was high relevant to only one visual cue in the dot probe task. After the prime stimuli, a dot probe task was adopted, in which two visual cues were presented at two opposite positions on the screen (left or right). After two visual cues disappeared, a visual probe was presented at one of the cue positions. The visual probe were three dots align in one line vertically or horizontally, and participants were required to discriminate the orientation of the probe stimulus. To investigate the time course of crossmodal priming on selective attention, the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between the prime stimulus and the cue was 600 ms in Experiment 1, while 900 ms in Experiment 2. Thus, a 2×2 within-participants design was adopted with the following two variables: Modality of prime stimuli (visual vs. auditory modality) and Cue type (high-relevant vs. low-relevant to the prime stimulus). The results of Experiment 1 show that under the condition of auditory-visual crossmodal priming, the participants respond faster when the probe follows the high-relevant cue than that when the probe follows the low-relevant cue. By contrast, under the condition of visual-visual intramodal priming, no significant difference of reaction times is found for two types of probes. The results of Experiment 2 show that the modulation effect of crossmodal priming on the visual selective attention disappears under the SOA of 900 ms. To sum up, by adopting the natural sounds and pictures of real objects, our study supports that the visual selective attention could be promoted by the crossmodal semantic links based on the experience-level. Moreover, the results in the present study reveal that crossmodal priming effect on visual selective attention could be observed when SOA between the prime stimulus and the cue is 600 ms and disappears when SOA is 900 ms. Our study extends the current research in the field of crossmodal integration and crossmodal attention and could be explained by the “unity assumption”. Moreover, for the natural objects, the existence of crossmodal semantic priming on the visual attention could be explained by the ‘unity assumption’, which could be further studied in the future. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Task Structural Similarity on Transfer Effect of Working Memory Training 2022, 45(6): 1337-1343.  Abstract ( )   The transfer effect of working memory training is to improve the performance of other tasks through working memory task training. Transfer is divided into near transfer and far transfer, where near transfer refers to training to improve the performance of tasks within the scope of working memory, and far transfer refers to training to improve the performance of tasks related to working memory. So, what is the mechanism of transfer effect? The current research on the transfer effect of working memory training presents contradictory results which have led to two mainstream views of transfer: the improvement of working memory ability or the improvement of working memory efficiency. The view of working memory ability improvement is that working memory training is similar to muscle training, in that it is thought that by continuously practicing a certain cognitive process, the overall resources associated with that process may be improved. The idea that working memory training has caused an increase in efficiency is that the transfer between tasks can be achieved by using strategies or increasing the degree of automation of working memory processing. The underlying assumption behind both views is that if an individual can improve the performance of all tasks that also require working memory through working memory training, then working memory training can be considered to improve the general working memory ability, otherwise, If working memory training can only improve the performance of tasks that are similar to the training task in processing or structure, it can only show that the training ed the individual to develop corresponding strategies, thereby improving the efficiency of working memory. Combined with most of the current research on working memory training, it can be found that transfer is limited to a certain extent, and the training of a single task will not improve all other tasks that require working memory, or even training of multiple working memory tasks, also failed to successfully transfer to other tasks. Therefore, most of the current research evidence supports the idea that transfer occurs due to improved working memory efficiency. A large number of recent studies have shown that the structural similarity between tasks has an important impact on transfer. Structural similarity refers to the sharing of processing and processing programs between tasks, which can be transferred to working memory training by developing similar strategies. This is beneficial to reduce the consumption of individual cognitive efforts and attention resources, thereby improving the individual's performance in training working memory tasks. But this strategy has a basic requirement for the application of untrained working memory tasks, that is, the training task and the untrained task have a similar structure. Therefore, the use of strategies may be an intermediary factor between structural similarity and the occurrence of transfer effects, and one way in which the use of strategy may play a role is that both tasks have similar sub-processes by forming specific strategies in similar sub-processing and information coding, cognitive burden is reduced, storage resources are released, and the performance of working memory task is promoted. Therefore, this article will focus on the influence of the similarity of task structure on the transfer effect of working memory training. First, it combs the recent research on the effectiveness and ineffectiveness of working memory training transfer. Second, it analyzes the reasons for the controversy from the perspective of task structure similarity. Finally, the future researches should pay more attention to the shortcomings in the previous research design, and study the mechanism of the working memory training effect of different groups separately. Related Articles | Metrics

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Automatic Processing Advantages of High Sensation Seekers for Risk Sounds: Evidence from N1、P2 and MMN 2022, 45(6): 1344-1351.  Abstract ( )   Sensation seeking is a trait which describes the individual's pursuit of changeable, novel, complex and intense sensory experience. Compared with the low sensation seekers, the high sensation seekers are more likely to engage in high-risk activities to pursue these sensory stimuli. Because high sensation seeking can predict misbehaviors and crimes in teenagers, it is of great theoretical and practical significance to study the cognitive neural mechanism of sensation seeking. Some of the existing studies have partially confirmed Zuckerman's theory of sensation seeking, showing that high sensation seekers are more sensitive to the intensity and changes of stimuli. However, there is a lack of report using materials directly related to risk-taking behaviors to explore the perceptual processing of high sensation seekers, so it is unable to investigate the cognitive neural processing mechanism of high sensation seeking to risk stimuli. According to Zuckerman's theory of sensation seeking and the optimal arousal level, high sensation seekers should have cognitive processing advantages on risk stimuli with neural sensitivity, cause this kind of stimuli can more effectively improve their cortical arousal level to the optimal state. And also, in the previous studies, high sensation seekers showed risk-taking behavior bias, which should be based on the advantage of early automatically perceptual processing. Therefore, the present study focused on the difference between high and low sensation seekers in automatic processing of risk sounds. In this study, a total of 19 high sensation seekers and 18 low sensation seekers were recruited as participants. Passive auditory oddball reversal paradigm was used to examine the early processing differences between individuals with different sensation seeking levels. The sound materials in the experiment were self-made risk sounds (by guns, explosion and emergency brakes) and neutral sounds (by chickens, ducks and geese). Continuous EEG was recorded when participants were receiving oddball and control blocks. In data analysis, we chose N1, P2 and MMN (Mismatch negativity) to systematically investigate the automatic arousal, attentional bias and feature detection ability of high sensation seekers to risk sounds. There are three main results in this study. First, risk sounds evoked significantly larger unconscious N1 in high sensation seekers, which showed that high sensation seekers had a more sensitive primary automatic processing of risk sounds and would have a higher level of cortical arousal. Secondly, the higher P2 of high sensation seekers induced by the risk sounds indicated that high sensation seekers were more sensitive to the risk sounds and showed an automatically attentional bias. Thirdly, risk sounds evoked higher MMN in high sensation seekers, revealing that high sensation seekers were also more sensitive to the changes of the risk sounds and could better detected risky characteristic automatically. In conclusion, the present study found that high sensation seekers had automatic processing advantages for risk sounds on unconscious arousal, selective attention and feature detection. For high sensation seekers, sounds with risky meaning were more exciting and complex, which may meet their needs for risk seeking preference. These findings suggested that the advantage of automatic processing in these three stages might be the cognitive neural mechanism of risk-taking behavior bias. Related Articles | Metrics

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Whether Young Children with High Functioning Autism Exhibit Sticky Attention? —Evidence from the Gap-Overlap Paradigm 2022, 45(6): 1352-1359.  Abstract ( )   Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and the presence of restricted interests and repetitive behaviours (APA, 2013). Though not a diagnostic feature, differences in how attention is deployed in ASD are commonly observed in young ASD children. Although it is usually thought that some core behaviours manifest in ASD are a consequence of social impairments, attentional deficits could also influence such behaviours. Attentional orienting, is composed of three operations, which are disengaging, shifting and engaging. Visual disengagement is a widely discussed component in eye-tracking studies related to ASD, which refers to the attentional breaking from the current fixation during visual orienting. In several prospective studies (e.g., Bryson et al., 2018), sticky attention (attentional disengagement deficit) is an early hallmark in high-risk ASD infants. If individuals exhibit sticky attention, they will need a longer saccadic reaction time to disengage from the current focus or fail to start eye movements to a new target. Although prospective research found the relationship between sticky attention and later ASD diagnosis, findings conflicted on whether sticky attention still exhibits in young children with ASD. Through the past twenty years, the actual evidence for attentional disengagement deficits has been equivocal. Several researchers concluded that attentional disengagement is impaired in children with ASD, and others reported no atypical. For young autistic children, it is unknown whether sticky attention would continue, or they may show normal disengaging performance and catch up to typically developing (TD) children by nurture development. Beyond that, currently, studies related to attentional disengagement in young ASD children are pretty rare. Therefore, in these individuals, we know little about their eye-movement behaviours during attentional disengagement. It should be noted that the gap-overlap paradigm is a classic visual saccadic paradigm used to explore participants’ oculomotor disengagement behaviours. In this paradigm, the time taken to initiate an eye movement to a peripherally presented target is compared across conditions where a central stimulus remains on display all through when the target is presented (overlap trials), where a central stimulus disappears when the target shows up simultaneously (baseline trials). The current study aimed to the gap-overlap paradigm to reveal attentional disengagement ability in young children with high-functioning ASD. 15 high-functioning ASD young children (IQ>70) and 18 chronological age, WPPSI-IV IQ matched TD children participated in the current study. The experimental design was a 2 (group: ASD vs TD) ×2 (task: baseline vs overlap) mixed design. During the experiment, two simple stimuli appeared on the screen, circles (central stimuli) and squares (target stimuli). All young children were told to find the target square when it appeared, and the eye-tracker, EyeLink portable DUO, was adopted to collect all children’s eye movement data. The results were as follows: (1) Attentional disengagement abilities normally developed in high-functioning ASD preschoolers, which showed no sign of impaired attentional disengagement. (2) Compared to TD children, ASD individuals showed normal attentional shifting behaviours. (3) Young children with high-functioning ASD exhibited faster saccadic reaction, especially in the overlap condition, which may be due to a lower level of attentional engagement or abnormal saccadic initiating. In a nutshell, this experiment showed no evidence to prove sticky attention for basic figures in high-functioning ASD preschoolers, though other attentional deficits they exhibited. It seems unlikely that disruptions of attentional disengagement abilities lie at the root of ASD. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Emotional Intelligence on Junior High School Students’ Psychological Adaptability: A Longitudinal Study 2022, 45(6): 1360-1366.  Abstract ( )   Psychological adaptability measures the ability of an individual to adjust himself and regain his balance when dealing with the changes of environment or body and mind. Junior high school students are in the adolescence of rapid physical and mental development, and they often face all aspects of adaptability problems in life. It is necessary to explore their psychological adaptability. Previous studies have shown that emotional intelligence can affect individual psychological adaptability, but most of them are cross-sectional studies, and lack of specific mediating mechanism. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the predictive effect of emotional intelligence on psychological adaptability and the chain mediating effect of interpersonal quality and adversity belief. In this study, 466 junior high school students were followed up for half a year at three time points. The subjects were asked to fill in emotional intelligence scale, interpersonal quality scale, adversity belief scale and psychological adaptability scale respectively by self-report method. The chain mediation hypothesis model was tested by spss25.0 and mplus7.4. The results implicated that: (1) emotional intelligence, interpersonal quality, adversity belief and psychological adaptability are positively correlated with simultaneity and continuity. (2) T1 emotional intelligence have a positive effect on T3 psychological adaptability (β= .13, p< .05). (3) T2 interpersonal quality mediate the relationship between T1 emotional intelligence and T3 psychological adaptability (.16 < Boot CI <.29). Specifically, the effect of T1 emotional intelligence on T2 interpersonal quality is .66 (p< .001), and the effect of T2 interpersonal quality on T3 psychological adaptability is .34 (p< .001). (4) T3 adversity belief mediate the relationship between T1 emotional intelligence and T3 psychological adaptability (.06 < Boot CI < .13). Specifically, the effect of T1 emotional intelligence on T3 adversity beliefs is .25 (p< .001), and the effect of T3 adversity beliefs on T3 psychological adaptability is .36 (p< .001). (5) T2 interpersonal quality and T3 adversity belief chained mediate the relationship between T1 emotional intelligence and T3 psychological adaptability (.02 < Boot CI < .07). Specifically, the effect of T2 interpersonal quality on T3 adversity beliefs is .18 (p< .01). It is found that emotional intelligence can not only directly affect psychological adaptability, but also indirectly affect psychological adaptability through the mediating effects of interpersonal quality and adversity beliefs and the chain mediating effects of them. This study combined with tracking research method, through six months of three waves of longitudinal data collection to verify the impact of emotional intelligence, interpersonal quality and adversity beliefs on junior high school students' psychological adaptability, which is conducive to further reveal the dynamic mechanism of emotional intelligence on psychological adaptability and the relationship between the variables, and provide some reference and guidance for the education and intervention of psychological adaptability, It has important theoretical and practical significance to promote junior high school students' psychological adaptability. Related Articles | Metrics

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Environmental Sensitivity Model on Child Development: An Integrated View 2022, 45(6): 1367-1374.  Abstract ( )   Environmental Sensitivity Model on child development integrated the views of Diathesis-Stress Model, Differential Susceptibility Model, Vantage Sensitivity Model, Biological Sensitivity to Context Model, and Sensory Processing Sensitivity Model into one meta-framework to explain how biological factors such as genes interact with environmental factors to contribute to child development. Environmental Sensitivity Model employs the concept of environmental sensitivity instead of vulnerability, susceptibility, biological sensitivity, vantage sensitivity, or sensory processing sensitivity to illustrate how biological factors such as genes interact with environmental factors to contribute to child development. Children differ substantially in Environmental Sensitivity, with some more sensitivity than others and thus with some being more affected by environmental factors than others. Environmental Sensitivity Model suggests that interactive effects between sensitivity genes and environmental factors shape sensitivity of the central nervous system. Heightened central nervous system sensitivity is then manifested in psychological/behavioral and physiological responsivity. Environmental Sensitivity Model provides an integrated theoretical framework for understanding child development from triple interaction of gene- central nervous system function- environmental factors and provides new explanations for the diversity of child development. A large number of studies explored how gene sensitivity, neurosensitivity, and temperamental sensitivity interact with environmental factors to contribute to child development and provided some evidence for the view of Environmental Sensitivity Model. Future studies should develop more valid and reliable psychological and biological measures of children’s environmental sensitivity. Future studies should employ multiple methods and means to examine how sensitivity genes interact with environmental factors to contribute to central nervous system function sensitivity and then contribute to children’s development. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Hearing Loss on Temporal Perception among Deaf Students 2022, 45(6): 1375-1382.  Abstract ( )   The individuals who have experienced hearing loss must rely on information obtained from their spared senses to process time. There have two competing hypotheses to explain the effect of hearing loss on temporal perception. The generalized-deficiency hypothesis proposes that an auditory deficit may affect the neurological development and organization of visual systems so that total reactivity of the organism is affected. However, perception compensation hypothesis indicates that deafness may result in enhanced or unaffected perceptual abilities as a consequence of brain reorganization. The aim of this study was to explore the influence of hearing loss on temporal perception of deaf students and its mechanism. The study employed a simultaneity judgment (SJ) task and a duration bisection task. The SJ experiment used a 2 (Group: deaf students, ordinary students) × 4 (Position: L3R3, L3R8, L8R3, L8R8) mixed design, which required subjects to judge whether two figures appearing at the same time or at a very short interval (-133 ms, -66 ms, -33 ms, -16 ms, 0 ms, 16 ms, 33 ms, 66 ms, or 133ms) were presented simultaneously or non-simultaneously. A total of fifteen deaf college students and fifteen ordinary college students volunteered for SJ experiment. The duration bisection experiment used a 2 (Group: deaf students, ordinary students) × 3 (Position: center, left, right) mixed design, which required subjects to judge whether one of the seven probe durations (1000 ms, 1500 ms, 2000 ms, 2500 ms, 3000 ms, 3500 ms, or 4000 ms) was more similar to a long or a short standard duration (4000 ms, and 1000 ms). A total of fourteen deaf college students and fourteen ordinary college students volunteered for this experiment. The study results showed that in SJ experiment, compared to ordinary students, the point of subjective simultaneity (PSS) and the standard deviation (SD) of the response distribution among deaf students were significantly increased, and there was no significant main effect of position and interaction effect. In duration bisection experiment, the Weber ration (WR) among deaf students was higher significantly than the ordinary students; However, there was no significant difference in bisection point (BP) between them. In conclusion, hearing loss impaired the accuracy and sensitivity of simultaneity perception and the sensitivity of duration perception in the visual channel among deaf students, which supported generalized-deficiency hypothesis. However, the accuracy of duration perception was not significantly affected by hearing loss, which supported perception compensation hypothesis. Therefore, hearing loss may have a selective mechanism influencing temporal perception of deaf students, which mainly depends on different temporal tasks and perceptual attributes. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship Between Technoference and Internet Gaming Disorder: The Mediating Role of the Need to Belong and the Moderation Role of Friendship Quality zien Ding Liu qinxue 2022, 45(6): 1383-1389.  Abstract ( )   Over the past few years, Internet gaming addiction has become a major social problem and an important research topic. Internet gaming addiction leads to a range of negative effects on the development of adolescents. Therefore, to develop effective prevention and remediation programs for Internet gaming addiction, the risk factors associated with Internet gaming addiction need to be identified. Technoference is defined as everyday interruptions in interpersonal interactions due to technology devices. It may play an essential role in adolescents' development as a part of a family system. According to the problem-behavior theory, the family system can directly influence the behavior of individuals, and affect the behavior of individuals through the individual system. From the perspective of need satisfaction theory, the need to belong reflects the information in the environment and influences the behavior of people. Accordingly, technoference occurring in the family environment is a piece of essential environmental information that may affect adolescents’ Internet gaming addiction by influencing their need to belong. Therefore, this study attempted to explore the mediating role of the need to belong. Besides, friendship quality may act as a buffer for maladaptive effects. Adolescents that feel isolated from peer relationships prefer to seek self-esteem or reassurance through internet games, so friendship quality may play a moderating role in the relationship between technoference and Internet gaming addiction. The present study constructed a moderated mediation model to examine whether the need to belong mediated the relationship between technoference and adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction, and whether friendship quality moderated this mediation effect. The study recruited 3209 junior high school students to complete Technology Interference in Life Examples Scale, Need to Belong Scale, Friendship Quality Scale, and Internet Gaming Addiction Scale. For data analysis, common method biases were examined at first. Then, correlation analysis was conducted to obtain the relationship between variables among the hypothesized model. All analyses were carried out using SPSS 21.0 and Amos17.0. The results indicated that: (1) The need to belong partially mediated the relationship between technoference and adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction. (2) Friendship quality moderated the relationship between technoference and the need to belong. Specifically, high friendship quality could alleviate the impact of technoference on the need to belong. (3) Friendship quality moderated the relationship between the need to belong and adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction. Specifically, high friendship quality could alleviate the impact of the need to belong to the adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction. The present study advanced our understandings of the underlying mechanism between technoference and adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction. These findings provide a new view, which helps us understand the effect of technoference. The conclusion of the current study was of great importance for the intervention of adolescent’s Internet gaming addiction. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mechanisms of Aging in Tip-of-the-Tongue Occurrence and Resolution during Lexical Access: A Two-step Approach Study 2022, 45(6): 1390-1397.  Abstract ( )   The “tip of the tongue” (TOT) refers to a state in which one cannot recall a familiar word but can recall words of similar form and meaning in speech production, which is common in our daily life, especially for the old speakers. It remains unclear about the cognitive mechanism underlying the TOTs in older adults speaking. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effect of aging on TOTs’ occurrence and resolution in young and older adults using a two-step approach, within a language-specific perspective, while controlling the influence of individual differences in general inhibitory ability. The experiment adopted a 2 age group (young vs. older adults) × 2 career congruity (congruent vs. incongruent) × 3 orthographic and phonological relatedness (orthographically and phonologically related, phonologically related, and unrelated) mixed factors design. Forty young and forty-two older adults participated in the experiment, and they were required to respond as rapidly as possible upon seeing a picture. If participants were in a TOT state, a prime name would be presented, and participants rated how easily the prime could be pronounced using a 3-point scale. After rating the prime name, participants were presented with the target picture again, and re-attempted to retrieve the target name. Again, participants were asked to judge whether they could speak out the target name, or were still having a TOT state. Four types of response were calculated as dependent variables, including GOT (Got the word), TOT, FOK (Feeling of knowing), and DK (Don't know). The proportions of semantic and phonological retrieval deficit were calculated based on the two-step approach proposed by Gollan and Brown (2006). The proportion of TOT resolution was also measured, i.e., the number of GOT response after TOT occurrence divided by total number of TOTs occurrence. Meanwhile, a Stroop color-word task was performed after the TOT resolution task to assess individual differences in general inhibitory capacity, in which participants had to judge the ink color of the stimulus as accurate and fast as possible. In the data analyses, the Stroop effect was calculated by subtracting response latencies in the incongruent condition from those in the congruent condition, and it was treated as a covariate in the mixed ANCOVAs analysis. After cancelling out the individual differences in inhibitory ability, the results showed that, compared with young adults, older adults not only produced more TOTs but also resolved fewer TOTs. Besides, older adults had greater phonological retrieval deficit than young adults during spoken word production, whereas both groups exhibited similar semantic retrieval deficit. More importantly, the phonological priming effect was modulated by career congruity in older adults, but it was irrespective of this factor in young adults. Taken together, our findings indicated that in speaking the transmission deficit between semantics and phonology increasing with age may lead to retrieval failures of persons’ names. Related Articles | Metrics

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“Pursue Reputation for Profit”: The Influence of Social Observation and Social Distance on the Pro-environmental Behavior 2022, 45(6): 1398-1406.  Abstract ( )   After decades of rapid economic growth, environmental issues are threatening people’s health and societies around the world are facing severe challenges with environmental pollution. And environmental problems are usually recognized as social dilemmas which imply conflicts between individual and collective benefits. Empirical studies explored the effect of social observation on pro-environmental behavior. However, the effect of social observation on pro-environmental behavior in previous studies are not completely consistent. Some researchers found that social observation increased pro-environmental behavior; however, some studies found that social observation did not affect pro-environmental behavior. In order to find out the possible causes of contradictions in previous research conclusions and understand the mechanisms of pro-environmental behavior, two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of social observation on pro-environmental behavior and the effect of social distance. Experiment 1 explored the effects of social observation on pro-environmental behavior under the presence or absence of observers. A total of 34 participants were recruited in Experiment 1a to investigate the effect of social observation without reciprocity on pro-environmental behavior. In Experiment 1b, 37 participants were recruited to further explore the effect of social observation with reciprocity on pro-environmental behavior. The results of Experiment 1a showed that social observation without reciprocity had no effect on pro-environmental behavior. But the results of Experiment 1b showed the participant's pro-environmental behavior under social observation without reciprocity condition was greater than that without observation (control condition). But the results of Experiment 1b showed the participant's pro-environmental behavior under social observation without reciprocity condition was greater than under control condition. Experiment 2 recruited 40 participants to explored the effect of social observation and social distance on pro-environmental behavior. The results of experiment 2 showed that social distance had a moderate effect on the relationship between social observation and pro-environmental behavior. The participant's pro-environmental behavior is not affected by social observation when environmental toward friends, while the pro-environmental behavior is greater under social observation relative to the control condition when the environmental toward acquaintances and strangers. These results show that people will regard pro-environmental behavior as a strategy to pursue fame and benefit in the future under social observation, and social distance had a moderate effect on the relationship between social observation and pro-environmental behavior. When the social distance between the deciders and the potential victims or beneficiaries of the environment is close, the pro-environmental behavior may be a kind of intuitive instinctive behavior, which is not affected by social observation, while as social distance increased, pro-environmental behavior is based on external motivation, which is affected by social observation. This enlightens us that when the social distance between the deciders and the potential victims or beneficiaries of the environment is close, the government should emphasize the possible consequences of environmental decision-making. With the increase of social distance, the government can improve pro-environmental behavior through external incentives, such as increasing the openness and benefit of pro-environmental behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Self-construal on In and Out-group Reference Effects 2022, 45(6): 1407-1413.  Abstract ( )   Previous studies showed that self-related information will be processed elaborately to gain an advantage in memory performance. This phenomenon is called self-reference effect (SRE), and the effect also exists at the group level. The memory advantage of the in-group information is called the group-reference effect (GRE). Theoretically, self-construal is considered to be one of the variables that influence the in-group reference effect. However, the question of whether the self-construal influence the out-group reference effect is still open. Therefore, the current study focuses on the promoting effect of self-construal on memory performances of out-group information. Two experiments were administered to explore whether self-construal could promote out-group reference effect. Experiment 1 recruited Han college students (N=119) who were randomly divided into 3 self-construal conditions: independent, interdependent, and neutral. Four orienting tasks were arranged: self-referential processing, Han-referential processing, Naxi-referential processing and Luxun-referential processing. During each task, participants were asked to make judgment in a scale of 5 points on the current reference object using the adjective words displayed on computer screen one by one in a rate of 1 word/4 seconds. After that, participants will be required to judge whether the adjective words had been displayed. Experiment 1 found that the recall rate of self-referential was significantly higher than in/out-group-referential and other-referential in all conditions. At the same time, there is an interaction effect between self-construal and referential conditions. In the interdependent self-construal condition, the in-group reference will no longer have the memory advantage over the out-group referential. Experiment 2（N=183） used the retrieval-induced forgetting paradigm to repeatedly check the results of Experiment 1. A total number of 183 college students of ethnic Han took part in Experiment 2, which took a 3 (self-construal: interdependent self-construal vs. independent self-construal vs. neutral) x 2 (ethnic: Han vs. Naxi) design between participants. Experiment 2 includes two sections. In the first section, participants will be required to learn the typical name about Han and Naxi ethnic to ensure that typical name can be regarded as representation of ethnic by participant. There are four phases in the second section. (1) Study phase: the computer will display the Chinese characters, The 32 exemplar divided into two categories and were instructed to memorize by making sentences with 2 different referential conditions ; (2) Retrieval-practice phase: One of the category will be selected randomly in this phase, and half of those exemplar will be practiced randomly also . Each cue comprised a category name and the first initial character of an exemplar and the participants were asked for written recall of the target exemplar in response to each cue; (3) Distraction phase: The participants were asked to perform random arithmetic within 3 minutes; (4) Final test phase: The participants were required to retrieve written recall as exemplars as much as possible in response to each presented category name. The results found that the RIF was not observed under the outgroup-referential under the interdependent self-construal condition, which means there is a significant out group-reference effect when the interdependent self-construal is prime. The two experiments consistently showed that interdependent self-construal can make the out-group information be elaborately processed, so that there is the same memory performance in the reference information of the in-group and out-group. Related Articles | Metrics

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The formation mechanism of complaint behavior: Based on qualitative interview 2022, 45(6): 1414-1421.  Abstract ( )   Complaining is pervasive and has become universal due to heavy pressure. However, complaining, which has negative energy, affects people negatively. In this study, the main participants of the interview are complainers in early adulthood (18-35 years), middle adulthood (35-60 years), and late adulthood (over 60 years). This study aimed at exploring the common characteristics of adult complaints in seven aspects including essence, content, motivation, object selection standard, expression form, result, and influencing factors. At the same time, this paper attempts to reveal the whole picture of complaining. Therefore, the current study may help to understand the characteristics of adult complaining under the background of Chinese culture. The semi-structured interview was applied to collect the data. 13 complainants and matched 26 complaining listeners were selected, according to the principle of purpose-oriented sampling (each complainant matched with 2 complaining listeners). A total of 39 interview records were collected. QSR Nvivo 10.0 qualitative analysis software was used for stepwise analysis, including open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Three-level coding was adopted to summarize the common characteristics of adult complaining behaviors. At the end of this study, the participant test and non-participant test was used to test the validity of the study. The analysis revealed seven key issues: (1) In essence, a complaint is an act of expressing dissatisfaction and annoyance to a third person who is unrelated to the event when individual encounters events. This behavior is not problem-solving oriented, is full of negative characteristics, and is an indirect behavior. (2) In the content of the complaint, complaint behavior can be divided into academic complaint, family complaint, work complaint, natural and humanistic environment complaint, and social reality complaint. (3) In complaint motivation, it can be divided into internal and external motivation, the former includes venting emotions, responsibility-shirking, obtain support, attracting admiration and attention-grabbing; while the latter includes opening topic, bowing to the group, and comforting others. (4) When choosing a complaint listener, the complainer mainly considers whether he or she can give a sense of security to oneself or whether the other party has a certain sympathetic ability. (5) Complaining behavior is manifested in verbal and non-verbal behaviors. (6) Further, the complaint results are divided into two types: direct injury, includes Transmitting negative energy, dissolving relationships, affecting physical and mental health, maintaining or increasing negative emotions; and indirect benefit, includes Building alliances, providing information, and gaining psychological comfort. (7) The influencing factors of Complaint behavior can be divided into three aspects: individual, environmental and event-related factors. These factors don’t affect complaining alone, but act on complaining behavior comprehensively. Understanding the connotation and characteristics of Chinese adults' complaining behavior can provide a reference for the intervention activities to formulate complaining behavior. To clarify the nature and ultimate effect of complaining behavior is helpful for people to see the negative nature of complaining behavior and strengthen their confidence in correcting behavior. Clarifying the internal motivation and influencing factors of complaint behavior will be beneficial to formulate intervention strategies with a clear target and seek methods to reduce complaint behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Behavioral Profiles in Collectivism in China: Evidence from Students 2022, 45(6): 1422-1427.  Abstract ( )   According to previous studies, the correlations between measures of individualism and collectivism at individual level seem to be negligible; however, within-person variability was found to be cross-temporally stable, thus calling into question the unitary construct of collectivism. Researchers conceptualized individual differences through the lens of behavioral profile, which suggests that collectivism might consist of loosely connected, cross-temporally stable subdomains. Previous studies in this field were mostly conducted in western cultures such as America and Canada, and only interindividual variability was examined in Japan, representing eastern cultures. Similar to Japan, China is an interdependent-culture in East Asia. Herein, we proposed that behavioral profile hypothesis could also find its support in Chinese culture. We replicated previous studies, obtaining the consistent results. Study 1 was a cross-sectional study, which included 404 students from a senior high school who participated in a paper-pencil test, consisting of following 6 cultural tasks: triad task, Framed Line Task, self-inflation scale, attribution task, loyalty/nepotism task, and Van de Vliert’s collectivism scale. The results showed negligible or very low correlations (mean r=.072) across these tasks. Study 2, which was a longitudinal study with two time portions (time 1 and time 2), included 708 participants who filled out an online questionnaire in the first portion of the study. The questionnaire included 4 cultural tasks: inclusion of other in the Self Scale, triad task, attribution task and loyalty/nepotism task. The obtained results were in line with those obtained in Study 1, where the mean correlation was .05. Among these 708 participants, 131 were included in the second portion and after 3 months and they filled out the same questionnaire on line, after which the test-retest analysis was made based on the data collected from 131 participants at time 1 and time 2. The size of test-retest correlations was moderate (.327<r<.515), except for one task with correlation coefficient of .252. As predicted, there were interindividual variability and intraindividual cross-temporally stability observed in Chinese samples. The present study results were consistent with previous studies conducted in western cultures. The contributions of the current research are as followings: First, we replicated same researches, which revealed consistent results in China, thus obtaining support for loosely-connected behavioral profile beyond America and Canada, and increasing its cross-cultural university. Second, there are different theories explaining factors influencing collectivism in China such as modernization theory, pathogen prevalence theory, rice theory and climate-economic theory. Each of these theories was established based on different measures, which led to differing results. E.g., Talhelm et al. adopted self-inflation scale, loyalty/nepotism task, triad task and proposed that individuals from wheat counties were more interdependent than individuals from rice counties; Van de Vliert et al. used collectivism scale and proposed that individuals having to cope with climatic demands without adequate resources were more interdependent. However, these two propositions seem to contradict each other when comparing the scores measured by different tasks according to these two different theories. Herein, we measured individual attitudes by using self-inflation scale, loyalty/nepotism task, triad task and Van de Vliert’s collectivism scale in the same research (Study 1), finding that correlations across tasks were negligible, with one exception of a low correlation. This suggests that different culture tasks/different facets may explain contradiction of the propositions, so more facets of collectivism should be considered and adopted in the cross-cultural study of different regions in China so as to obtain more robust results. Conclusion: The present study demonstrated intra-individual cross-temporally stability among various facets of collectivism in spite of zero or low interindividual correlations, which gave clear support for the application of loosely-connected behavioral profiles in Chinese culture. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Social Exclusion on Pro-group Behavior Tendency: The Moderating Effect of Power 2022, 45(6): 1428-1435.  Abstract ( )   Pro-group behavior is of great value for the survival and development of individuals and groups during the evolution and interaction between individuals and groups．Because of the group’s functionality to individual fitness, people show a great motivation to seek social connections and engage in pro-group behavior tendencies. However, social exclusion thwarts this connection between individuals and groups. According to the results of previous studies, people may either withdraw or engage in pro-group behavior tendencies to response for being excluded by their groups. According to the regulatory focus effect of power, high power individuals with promotion focus tend to display approach-oriented behaviors; low power individuals who taking prevention focus are more likely to perform avoidance-oriented behaviors. The two behavioral tendencies align with the aforementioned reactions to social exclusion. It can be seen that individual differences in the level of power are a non-negligible factor affecting individual pro-group behavior tendencies. Therefore, this study explores the moderating effect of a sense of power on the relationship between social exclusion and pro-group behavior tendencies. Study 1 used the social exclusion scale and pro-group behavior tendencies scale to explore the relationship between social exclusion perception and pro-group behavior tendencies. A total of 240 participants working in full-time positions completed this survey via the Internet platform. Study 2 was conducted in the laboratory with 121 college students. It was a 2 (condition: exclusion vs. inclusion) × 2 (power: high vs. low) between-subjects design. The sense of power was manipulated by writing about a personal incident in which they were powerful or powerless. After completing the power prime, participants were randomly assigned to exclusion condition or inclusion condition by the group exclusion paradigm. We conducted study 3 to further examine the moderating role of trait power in the relationship between social exclusion and pro-group behavior tendencies. Study 3 with 64 college students was same to the study 2 except that the trait power of participants was measured by the Sense of Power Scale instead of power prime. Participants firstly completed the Sense of Power Scale. Then, they were randomly received exclusion or inclusion feedback by using the group exclusion paradigm. After that, all the subjects responded to the pro-group behavior tendencies measurement. Based on the above studies, we got the following results :(1) there is a significant positive correlation between social exclusion perception and pro-group behavior tendencies;(2) the trait power and the personal power by manipulated in laboratory situation both has a significant moderated the relationship between the social exclusion and pro-group behavior tendencies;(3) the participants with high power exhibited more pro-group behavior tendencies when suffered from social exclusion than those with low power. For the participants who are included by group, the level of power has no effect on pro-group behavior tendencies. We conclude that the sense of power was identified as a moderator of the effects of social exclusion on pro-group behavior tendencies and further help illuminate the mechanisms underlying the effects of social exclusion. Related Articles | Metrics

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Intelligent Machines with Faster Moral Decision-making Gain More Trust: The Mediating Role of Competence Perception 2022, 45(6): 1436-1442.  Abstract ( )   It has been found that human’s faster moral decision-making illuminates their moral characters. Considering that the speed of decision-making is an important attribute that people can perceive about the behavior of intelligent machines, this study aims to explore how the speed of moral decision-making by intelligent machines affect people's trust in them compared to humans. A 2 (decision-making speed) × 2 (decision-making content, moral vs. immoral) situational experiment shows that the presence of moral behavior lead people to trust for both intelligent machines and human beings, but faster moral decision-making increases people's trust in them only by intelligent machines. In addition, human’s competence perception of intelligent machines is found to play a mediating role between the speed of moral decision-making by intelligent machines and people's trust in them. Thus, the current research has indicated that the speed of moral decision-making by intelligent machines can affect people's trust in them, and there are different mechanisms for people's speed perception of moral decision between intelligent machines and human beings. Related Articles | Metrics

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Understanding The Temporal Dynamics of Justice: The Role of Time in Organization Justice 2022, 45(6): 1443-1449.  Abstract ( )   Time plays an important role in the process of justice effect. However, most traditional organizational justice research takes a cross-sectional approach to examining the relationships between fairness and individuals’ attitudes. Recently, researchers have directly addressed the temporal patterning of justice judgments and the effects that changes in these perceptions have on work outcomes. Based on the time frame of the research, we classify the research into two categories: the shorter time frame research and the longer time frame research. The shorter time frame research investigated the fluctuations of justice over a shorter time frame (i.e. 5-7 working days). Whereas, the longer time frame research investigated the fluctuations of justice over a longer time frame (i.e. over 10 months). The shorter time frame research has taken a dynamic person-centric view, and has shown that justice perceptions are variable and exert time-dependent influence on work outcomes. Moreover, the shorter time frame research found that the justice variability impacts the individuals’ attitudes and behavior. The longer time frame research examined the impacts of justice trajectories (i.e., levels and trends of individual fairness perceptions over time) on work outcomes. Research has shown that the justice trajectories explain additional variance in work outcomes. The research in this area has drawn on different theories to explain the mechanisms underlying the temporal dynamics of justice effect. For the shorter time frame research, based on the ego depletion theory, daily fluctuations in justice affect changes individuals’ regulatory resources, which in turn affect individuals’ attitudes and behaviors. Moreover, drawing on uncertainty management theory, justice variability is another source of employee’s uncertainty, which negating the benefits of general justice perceptions. For the longer time frame research, on the basis of fairness heuristic theory and gestalt characteristics theory, employees may utilize their justice trajectories as a heuristic when they make sense of the leaders’ current behaviors. Furthermore, following the logic of social exchange theory, employees will evaluate an improving (declining) justice trajectory as a signal of the leaders’ increasing (decreasing) contributions to the exchange relationship. This evaluation may strengthen (weaken) the reciprocal relations and induce positive (negative) outcomes. There are some important avenues for future research. First, future research may tease out the nature of the temporal dynamics of justice. It would be advisable in future research to analyze the full range of justice dimensions’ variation over time, and to link their variation over time to general fairness perceptions. It also would be useful for future research to investigate the relationship between the shorter and the longer change. Second, future research may extend this research area by investigating the possible antecedents of temporal dynamics of justice. Future research may focus on different loci that determine the justice perceptions and its variation: the actor (the individual adhering/violating justice rules), the receiver (the individual perceiving fairness), and the actor-receiver dyad. Third, future research may identify the potential moderators of the temporal dynamics of justice. On one hand, researchers would consider the “threshold effects”. That is, the perceptions of fairness may change rapidly at some time point, or after some phase-shifting events. On the other hand, employees’ reactions to justice may be based not only on current justice experience, but also on the justice variation over time. Hence, future research would explore when employees rely on current justice experience and when they rely on justice variation. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Mindfulness on Academic Procrastination of College Students in Online Learning Environments: Resilience and Self-Control as Chain Mediator 2022, 45(6): 1450-1457.  Abstract ( )   Academic procrastination has been proven to be harmful to many aspects of college students’ academic and personal lives. Thus, several studies attempt to determine effective interventions in academic procrastination. In recent years, mindfulness has been found to effectively reduce college students’ academic procrastination. Although online learning has become a very convenient way of studying, students need a high level of self-management in online learning environments because they have more freedom in such set-up. As a result, mindfulness, as an individual difference characteristic of students, may have an important impact on learning efficiency in online learning environments. However, as far as we know, there are few researches on this issue. Therefore, the present research attempts to explore the impact of mindfulness on academic procrastination of college students in online learning environments, and considers resilience and self-control as two potential mediators. Previous research has found that mindfulness can improve resilience, which can help students adjust their negative emotions and cognition, reduce their fear of failure, and thus make them less likely to avoid problems with academic procrastination. Moreover, mindfulness has been found to associated with self-control. According to the limited-resources model of self-control, the self-control resources that individuals have are limited. Nevertheless, mindfulness can ease the depletion of resources in self-control. Self-control is also a strong and persistent predictor of procrastination. As a result, resilience and self-control may play significant roles in the relationship between mindfulness and academic procrastination. On the basis of this reasoning, we establish the multiple mediating model of resilience and self-control between mindfulness and academic procrastination. To prove this model, this research collected self-reported data using online questionnaires from 157 students in 28 colleges in China. Data were collected in stages with three different questionnaires in a month. The first questionnaire measured mindfulness, the second questionnaire measured resilience, and the last questionnaire measured self-control and academic procrastination. We used Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API), Resilience Scale (RS) and Self-Control Scale (SCS) to measure mindfulness, academic procrastination, resilience and self-control of college students, respectively. The statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 24.0. Results show that: (1) A significant negative correlation exists between mindfulness and academic procrastination in online learning environments. (2) A significant positive correlation exists between resilience and self-control. Resilience and self-control are negatively correlated with academic procrastination. (3) Resilience and self-control have a chain mediating effect between mindfulness and academic procrastination. Thus, mindfulness can affect academic procrastination through the full mediating effect of resilience or self-control alone, and it can also affect academic procrastination through a chain mediating effect of resilience and self-control. These findings enrich the research on the mechanism of the influence of mindfulness on academic procrastination in online learning environments. They also deepen our understanding of mindfulness, so as to promote the development of mindfulness and enable people to improve their lives through mindfulness. From a practical perspective, the present research provides an valuable insight into how to reduce students’ academic procrastination in online learning environments, which is helpful in the improvement and further development of online learning. Related Articles | Metrics

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Item Attribute Vector Balance Strategy in Cognitive Diagnostic Test Design Xiao-Juan TANG Shu-Liang DING Zonghuo YU 2022, 45(6): 1466-1474.  Abstract ( )   CD(Cognitive Diagnosis) can provide personalized diagnostic results for subjects. The selection strategy of CD and CD-CAT (Cognitive Diagnostic Computerized Adaptive Testing) is also a test design in essence, which can provide references for the design of cognitive diagnostic tests. Some studies believe that a high accuracy rate can be obtained only when each attribute is fully measured. Therefore, in CD-CAT, the Attribute Balance(AB) strategy was proposed. Combined with the attribute balance index, MMGDI (Modified Maximum Global Discrimination Index) had a high attribute and pattern accuracy rate. However, when all attributes in projects were constrained by the hierarchical relationship, and the attribute balance strategy was difficult to implement. Therefore, it is more reasonable to consider the item attribute vector balance strategy. It is called the Item Attribute Vector Balance (IAVB) matrix if the attribute hierarchy relationship contained in the test Q matrix which is consistent with the theoretical attribute and hierarchy relationship, and the test Q matrix is composed of different item attribute vectors with the same number of uses.IAVBwas the extension of the AB. In this paper, the study was conducted in two sub-studies. The comparison of IAVB and ABunder the conditions of 3 and 5 attributes with independent structure and 5 attributes with unstructured. The total number of participants in each study was 30 times of theknowledge state categories. The error and guessing parameters of DINA model were fixed at 0.05. Based on the expected response mode, for each score x, a random number r which follows the U (0,1) distribution was generated. If r>0.05, the score was still x; otherwise, the score was 1-x.. The following conclusions could be obtained through the simulation studys : (1) when the numbers of item attributes examined were approximately the same, PMR(Pattern Match Ratio)and other indicators of theIAVB tests were higher than others. Compared with other tests, PMR of the IAVB tests in Study 1 increased by more than 17%. PMR of the IAVB tests in study 2 increased by more than 15%. (2) When the numbers of attributes were different between items, the less the number of attributes was, the higher PMR and other indicators were; The more attributes the item examined, the less information it provided; (3) With independent structure, when the numbers of attributes examied in each item were the same and the times of each attribute examied in a test were the same, each index of the IAVB tests were higher than the AB tests, and the indicators of the AB testswere higher than other tests. For example, in Study 1, compared with the AB tests, PMR of the IAVB test Q1 increased by 14.70% and PMR of Q4 increased by 23.54%. Compared with other tests , PMR of the AB tests increased by 3.98%. In the second study, compared with the AB test Q51, PMR of the IAVB test Q5 increasedby 24.08%, and PMR of Q51 was higher than other tests of Q52 and Q53 30.19%. In conclusion, IAVB strategy, which considers both the attribute hierarchy and the sufficient measurement of each attribute, is the extension of AB strategy. In the design of cognitive diagnostic tests, more items should be selected which have fewer attributes and meet the condition of IAVB. This strategy can be applied not only to small tests, but also to large tests (such as PISA). The design of large test can include as many items as possible with fewer attributes (reusable), and satisfy the item attribute vector balance. Related Articles | Metrics

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Controlling for Clustering in Single Level Study: Design-Based Methods 2022, 45(6): 1475-1482.  Abstract ( )   In social science research fields, single-level research often adopts cluster sampling or multi-stage sampling to obtain samples, resulting in the fact that the data structure is multi-level. Thus, researchers have to control for errors from the higher level in their single-level studies. Hierarchical linear model (HLM) suffers from limitations in dealing with such issue. First, HLM's unique advantage to focus on random effects and cluster-specific inferences cannot be reflected in single-level research. Second, the disadvantages of HLM are amplified in single-level research. (1) HLM's assumptions about random effects are harder to satisfy and test. Violation of these assumptions may result in parameter estimation bias. (2) HLM is more likely to produce convergence problems. (3) For single-level studies, HLM is complex in theory, modeling, software operation and interpretation of results. Thus, HLM is difficult to generalize in a single level study with multi-level error. Design-based methods (DBM), including cluster-robust standard errors (CRSE), generalized estimation equation (GEE), and fixed effects model (FEM), represents a category of logical and valid procedures to analyze multi-level data. By correcting for the standard errors of fixed effects, DBM circumvents the issues of partitioning residuals and variables into different levels while accurately estimate parameters. Thus, DBM can address multi-level data within the single-level framework, which is very friendly to single-level researchers. Contrast to HLM, DBM is more parsimonious in modeling, simpler in operating, more efficient in running and more robust in estimating for single-level research. Therefore, at least under the condition of single-level research with multi-level error, DBM is an ideal alternative to HLM. After a detailed introduction of DBM and its advantages, a simulation data set were used to demonstrate the effectiveness of DBM in controlling for multi-level error in single-level mediation studies (i.e., 1-1-1 mediation model). The results showed that although both HLM and DBM were accurate in estimating the within-cluster component of the mediating effect, the former underestimated the standard errors of mediating effect and each mediating path coefficient. In addition, all of the DBMs are simpler than HLM in terms of operations, especially the FEM. FEM is not only possible to operate through SPSS, but also unnecessary to center the variables in level 1 and control between-cluster variables. What’s more, through the popular SPSS mediating analysis macro PROCESS, FEM can realize both casual steps approach and coefficients product approach with bootstrap confidence interval for various complex mediation models. Finally, following suggestions were given for practitioners to select appropriate methods to accommodate clustering in single-level research. (1) DBM is suggested to control the multi-level error in single-level study, especially FEM. (2) If researchers are interested in between-cluster fixed effects, CRSE and GEE is recommended. (3) When researchers have sufficient background knowledge of HLM, and need to focus on random effects, they should collect multi-level data deliberately, especially to ensure that the sample size of level 2 is sufficient. (4) It is recommended to retain the cluster identification information when collecting data, so as to prevent the actual level of data from exceeding the expectant level, leading to the failure to control the multi-level error. Related Articles | Metrics

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Bodily sensation of emotion: Based on bodily sensation maps and qualitative research 2022, 45(6): 1483-1491.  Abstract ( )   There has been controversy about whether different emotions correspond to different physiological responses. Nummenmma et al. (2014) used emBODY tool and found that each emotion has its unique bodily sensation map (BSM). They believed that BSMs may simultaneously reflect changes in skeletomuscular and visceral sensations as well as the effects of autonomic nervous system, but traditional psychophysiological techniques cannot reveal the connection between BSMs and physiological changes. This study is aimed at exploring this question further, using emBODY and qualitative interview. This study involved four emotions: happiness, love, fear and anxiety. 98 Chinese college students participated in this study, and they were asked to draw their bodily sensation of each emotion on an iPad, using the tool of emBODY. After completing the pictures, 94 participants voluntarily participated in the follow-up interview and verbally reported the bodily sensations reflected in the BSMs. The main findings are as follows. (1) The results of BSMs in this study were similar to the previous research (Nummenmaa et al., 2014) to a large extent, but there were still some differences. For example, in this study, the activity of lower abdomen of males slightly increased, which was particularly evident in the previous research (Nummenmma et al., 2014). According to the interview, it represented sexual arousal. However, most of Chinese participants did not show this in the picture. This may be due to the cultural constraint. Moreover, drawing method (online or offline) may also influence the results. (2) According to the interview, BSMs reflected a variety of bodily sensations. Specifically, the activation of head in BSMs mainly reflected changes in facial expressions, the excitement of the brain, increased thoughts, blushing and so on. The activation of chest in BSMs mainly reflected the rapid heartbeat, warmth, or discomfort. The activation of limbs, hands and feet in BSMs mainly reflected an increase in behavioral tendency or an increase in body temperature, while the deactivation of limbs, hands and feet mainly reflected feelings of stiffness and coldness. Qualitative data analysis divided the participants’ descriptions of bodily sensations into 12 categories, which could be further classified into four dimensions: cognition, feeling, physiological response, and behavioral tendency. That is to say, the bodily sensations reflected in BSMs are not limited to physiological responses. Another possible inference is that although current researches suggest that it is difficult to distinguish emotions only by physiological responses, if we consider the other aspects of bodily sensations, it may be possible to distinguish different emotions. (3) From the interview, we found that BSMs have some limitations as a research tool, which has not been paid enough attention to in previous studies. First, the participants may have different understandings of “activation” and “deactivation”. Many participants reported the feeling of pain of the lower abdomen when they experienced the emotion of fear, but some participants thought that pain represented activation, while others regarded it as deactivation, which resulted in no change in the BSMs. Besides, in the existing research using BSMs as a tool, there was only one side of body, which made it hard to show the feelings of the back. Future research needs to take these issues into consideration. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of Mindfulness on Stress - Based on Monitoring and Acceptance Theory 张 瑶瑶 Hong Yuan Yan-Ling LIU 2022, 45(6): 1492-1499.  Abstract ( )   Stress is a physiological and psychological response to potentially threatening events. With the rapid development of the era, individuals have to face fast-growing stress. Not only the severe stress could lead individuals into anxiety and depression, but also contribute to physical diseases. Mindfulness relieves stress by focusing on the present and an attitude towards acceptance. However, previous researches on the effects of mindfulness on stress were inconsistent, ignoring the complexity and diversity of the processes, and lacked the in-depth investigation of the corresponding mechanisms as well. Monitoring and Acceptance Theory (MAT) provides a clearer mechanism of mindfulness by deconstructing the components of monitoring and acceptance. Therefore, this study is based on MAT to assess the effects of mindfulness on stress and its psychoneurological mechanisms. First, this review introduces the basic concepts and framework of MAT to clarify the conceptual content and psychological operation of monitoring and acceptance. Second, through analyzing the monitoring and acceptance, the inconsistency of the effect of mindfulness on stress is mainly related to the monitoring component. Then, reviewing the past research, this review reveals the neural mechanisms of monitoring and acceptance affecting stress from the cognitive and emotional perspectives. Furthermore, this review summarizes that mindfulness monitoring improves attention and control of stressful stimuli by enhancing attentional monitoring and executive control. While, acceptance relieves stress primarily by changing cognition appraisal and reducing emotional reactivity. In summary, this review expands and complements MAT, which will contribute to the theory and practice study in this field both nationally and internationally. In addition, this review explores the neural mechanisms of monitoring and acceptance affecting stress from the perspective of brain plasticity, summarizes and proposes some directions for further study. Future research should focus on the effects and mechanisms of monitoring; more attention should be paid to the importance of stress stimulus and stress appraisal; new experimental paradigms should be designed to directly assess the psychological and neural mechanisms of the effects of mindfulness on stress through MAT; mindfulness stress-relieving interventions should be improved in order to promote the alleviation of stress problems in contemporary society in practice. Related Articles | Metrics

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Similar and Distinct Neural Mechanisms of Visuospatial Pseudoneglect and Representational Pseudoneglect Yue ZHANG Zhong-Hua HU 2022, 45(6): 1500-1507.  Abstract ( )   Pseudoneglect is “healthy subjects tend to exhibit a subtle bias of visual attention favoring left space”. This tendency to be biased towards the left side of space is not only demonstrated on the tasks of visuospatial attention (called visuospatial pseudoneglect) but also observed in imaginary space attention tasks (called representational pseudoneglect). However, if a common neural mechanism is the source of both visuospatial and representational pseudoneglect is still under debate. Therefore, it is meaningful to untangle the recent results to further study the similarities and differences of neural mechanisms between the visuospatial pseudoneglect and representational pseudoneglect. Attention orienting, maintenance, and allocation functions mainly rely on the parietal cortex. Furthermore, according to the early right hemisphere (RH) dominance theory, lateralization of attention functions is suggested to be the basis of pseudoneglect. Neuroimaging and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation(TMS) studies further proved that the right posterior parietal cortex is the common neural basis of both visuospatial pseudoneglect and representational pseudoneglect. Besides, several scholars found that larger superior longitudinal fascicle (SLF) II volumes on the right hemisphere correspond to a greater deviation to the left in the line bisection, which indicates visuospatial pseudoneglect is associated with an unbalanced speed of visuospatial processing between the two hemispheres along the SLF II. Others found that in brain-damaged neglect subjects, only right prefrontal cortex damage is connected to the disappearance of representational pseudoneglect. In other words, damage to the right prefrontal cortex may lead to the impairment of spatial working memory in patients, thus affecting the formation and processing of the left portion of spatial representations. Therefore, the right prefrontal cortex may be a key brain region for representational pseudoneglect. To further prove the mentioned similar and distinct neural mechanisms of two kinds of pseudoneglect, the effects of prism adaptation and stimulus presentation distance on them were discussed. The results revealed that prism adaptation has similar influences on visuospatial pseudoneglect and representational pseudoneglect. Specifically, it adjusts the centerline of the attention allocation in both visual and representational space by affecting the functions of the right posterior parietal cortex. However, stimulus presentation distance modulates the phenomenon of visuospatial pseudoneglect alone, given that left visuospatial bias is attenuated as the stimulus moves from near to far space. This may be related to reduced speed difference of visuospatial information along the SLF II between the two hemispheres in the far distance. Besides, the performance of schizophrenic and developmental dyscalculia patients in visuospatial and representational pseudoneglect tasks also implies distinct mechanisms of them. The damage to the right posterior parietal lobe, which is the common neural basis of two kinds of pseudoneglect, will affect attention function dominance of the right hemisphere, thus leading to the disappearance of visuospatial pseudoneglect. However, in addition to being modulated by attention function, conditions such as learning, experience, and genetics also affect the expression of representational pseudoneglect. When attention functions are impaired, representational attention deficits may be compensated by other strategies to maintain a stable leftward representational spatial bias. In addition, for better understanding the underlying neural mechanisms, future studies can also explore the dissimilarities of time course between visuospatial pseudoneglect and representational pseudoneglect and optimize the paradigm of representational pseudoneglect. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Temporal Characteristics of the Pain Empathy in Medical College Undergraduates: Evidence from an ERP Study 2022, 45(6): 1508-1516.  Abstract ( )   Previous studies have shown that physician’s pain empathy was significant reduced compared to that of non-physicians, which could be manifested by their suppressed early emotional sharing processes indexed by N1 and late cognitive evaluation processes indexed by the P3 or LPP components. However, it remains unclear whether medical undergraduates at preservice education stage would have the same problem as well, and whether their pain empathy would be attenuated by repeated exposures. The investigation of these two issues would not only help us deeply understand the adaptability and plasticity of social empathies, but also provide useful empirical and theoretical references for the health protection and professional development of physicians. This study used the event-related potentials (ERPs) method to compare the cognitive processes of pain empathy between medical and non-medical undergraduates. Furthermore, we also compared the possible influences of repeated exposures on pain empathy between these two groups. During the study, a total of 25 medical undergraduates and 25 non-medical undergraduates (3 non-medical undergraduates was excluded because bad EEG recording) were tested by a three-stage experimental paradigm: pre-exposure test, repeated exposure of pain in the middle stage, post-exposure test. In both pre-exposure and post-exposure test stage, the classical picture observation paradigm (Decety et al. 2010) was used. While in the repeated exposure test stage, a free-view habituation task (Mastria et al. 2017) was used. That resulted a 2 (participants: medical student vs control group) × 2 (stimuli: pain pictures vs non-pain pictures) × 2 (task stages: pre-test vs post-test) experiment design. ERP components associated with pain empathy, such as N1, N2, P3, and LPP components, were measured and analyzed accordingly. Our behavioral results showed that both the medical and non-medical undergraduates exhibited similar pain empathy effect, and neither group showed significant difference between pre- and post-repeated exposure. However, ERP results showed that the temporal processing characteristics of the pain empathy processes in medical undergraduates were significantly different from that of non-medical undergraduates. Specifically, compared with the control group, medical undergraduates failed to exhibit similar pain empathy effects indexed by significant N1 effect between pain and non-pain stimuli, but showed the comparable increased reinforcement on late cognitive evaluation processing indexed by enhanced LPP amplitude to pain stimuli. Regarding to the repeated exposure effect, pain empathy for medical undergraduates were resistant to the repeated exposure by showing comparable enhanced LPP components to pain stimuli in both pre- and post-exposure test stages. On the contrary, pain empathy for non-medical undergraduates were significantly reduced after the repeated exposure by showing reduced LPP components to pain stimuli between pre- and post-exposure test stages. To sum up, our study showed that, although medical preservice education suppressed the early emotional sharing processes of pain empathy, medical undergraduates could maintain their pain empathy level through investing more controls and mentalizing resources at late cognitive evaluation stage. Additionally, compared to the non-medical undergraduates, their pain empathies are less influenced by repeated exposures. Taken together, these findings are not only of great significance for understanding the occupational psychological characteristics of medical staffs, but also demonstrate that pain empathy shaped by knowledge learning can resist repeated exposure or habituation. Related Articles | Metrics

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Teacher’s Control: Concept, Measurement, and Influence on the Students 2022, 45(6): 1517-1523.  Abstract ( )   Teacher’s control refers to that teachers exert pressure on students through emotion or behavior in the teaching process, and force students to think, experience or act in a specific way. External control and internal control are two forms of typical control. External control is an explicit control which focuses on limiting choices and directing activities in a certain way, whereas internal control is an implicit control which constitutes more intrusive emotional manipulations. Teachers’ control measurement includes Teachers' Self-report Scale, Students' Report Scale and Experimental Observation. Teachers' Self-report Scale provides direct information about themselves but the information may not be true for the consideration of social approval. The Students’ Report Scale has advantages such as easy data collection and the wide extension, but it will also be affected by the teacher-student interaction and teachers’ preferences. The method based on Experimental Observation analyzes the behavior and performance of teachers’ control more comprehensively and objectively from the perspective of the third party, but there are also problems such as high requirements for practical operation, difficulty in coding and scoring, and low external validity. The theoretical foundation of teacher’s control is derived from Self-determination Theory（SDT）. SDT assumes that the process of internalization is the central to personality development and to individuals’ adjustment. Within SDT, autonomous regulation contributes to intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation, whereas controlled regulation contributes to extrinsic, partially internalized or not internalized motivation, which forests psychological adjustment and even creates a vulnerability to maladjustment and psychopathology. Most studies hold that teacher’s control has a negative impact on students' emotions, motivation, engagement and academic performance. High-intensity teacher’s control may also lead to students' resistance or defensive behavior. The research on the influence mechanism of teacher’s control is mainly based on SDT, which verifies the mediating role of the need satisfaction and need frustration between teacher’s control and students’ performance. The three basic psychological need including autonomy, competence and relatedness have been drawn attention and the former two have been widely examined but not the latter. The gender differences and cultural differences are important issues in this area. Some studies have shown that teacher’s control has the same effect on boys or girls, but other studies reveal that boys are more sensitive to teacher’s control. With respect to cross-culture consistence, some researchers hold that teacher’s control strategies such as love withdrawal and shaming are more frequently used in the east than in the west, therefore the eastern children may perceive less feeling of being controlled and hurt than the western children, however, the conclusions of different studies are inconsistent. In the future, we should clarify the conception of teacher’s control, distinguish different kinds of control such as psychology control and behavior control, external control and internal control. Additionally, we should adopt hybrid research methods and longitudinal tracking design to fully reveal the impact of teacher’s control on student development. Moreover, cross-cultural research and the group differences research should be also conducted in the further study. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Psychological Mechanism by which Literary-Reading May Affect Social Cognition Yuan-qing Wang 2022, 45(6): 1524-1530.  Abstract ( )   Abstract： A growing number of studies have suggested that reading fiction may improve individuals’ social cognitive abilities, such as enhanced understanding of other people, increased altruistic behavior, and reduced prejudice. Focusing on two social cognitive abilities, empirical research supports that individuals who read more fiction perform better on tests of empathy and theory of mind. However, research to date has mostly only demonstrated the phenomena rather than systematically explored potential causal mechanisms of fiction-reading’s positive influence. Besides, whether the correlational results are specific to literary fiction has not been established. Some research claims that different durations of participants’ reading may be the reason for the inconsistent results, while likely to be moderated by different processing depths and emotional involvements or different genres of fiction (e.g., literary fiction may require a longer time than popular fiction). Previous research has paid limited attention to the role of fiction characteristics, processing depth, and emotional involvement. To address this gap, the Simulation Theory, Elaboration Likelihood Model, and Narrative Transportation Theory have been invoked with a focus on the social realism and literariness of the fiction. Simulation Theory states the critical process determining the relationship between reading fiction and improved social cognitive abilities is the mental simulation. Readers infer characters’ mental states as akin to understand others’ thoughts and emotions in real life. Highly socially realistic fiction is a mirror of the real-world that allows readers to gain social knowledge and hone key socio-cognitive abilities. The Elaboration Likelihood Model provides an explanation for the observed social benefits of fiction from the aspect of motivation. According to this model, the unique linguistic form of literary fiction makes the reading experience complex, ambiguous, and requiring more cognitive effort of the reader—activate readers' motivation to take cognitive strategies. With an emphasis on the vital role of emotions involved, Narrative Transportation Theory states that individuals’ emotional involvement would be higher when reading fiction with high literariness and socially realistic. Readers with highly emotional involvement would be transported into the story, resonate with the characters, and simulate the social experiences depicted in stories, thus promoting relevant social cognitive abilities. The above theories broadly focus on three main elements, namely: motivation, cognitive processing strategy, and emotional involvement, all of which are equally important. As such this paper proposes a motivation-emotion-cognitive strategy framework explaining how fiction-reading bolsters social cognitive abilities. First, the highly literary context creates an in-depth reading experience that requires cognitive effort, ing readers to adopt cognitive strategies to accurately process textual information. Meanwhile, highly literary fiction motivates the mental simulation strategy, turning formerly passive emotional participation into active. On the other hand, its socially realistic nature allows individuals to carry out the mental simulation, as well as triggering a higher emotional involvement, which promotes mental simulation, fed back by mental simulation. At this time, emotional involvement and mental simulation form a virtuous circle, which further deepens mental simulation, finally enhancing social cognition. Based on the proposed framework, this paper recommends several directions for future research. First, more empirical research needs to be conducted to precisely examine the explanatory power of the motivation-emotion-cognitive strategy framework. At the same time, boundary conditions such as narrative perspective, attention spans, and more individual differences should be taken into account and explored. Moreover, neuroscience studies could be carried out to provide further evidence for the brain mechanisms of cognitive processing during fiction-reading. Related Articles | Metrics