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The Activation of Semantic Information in Early Stage of Word Recognition:Evidence from an ERP Study 2013, 36(2): 258-264.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The Semantic understanding of written words are fundamental to the process of reading. In the word recognition research, such as alphabet writing, many studies have shown that repetition and semantic priming both produce characteristic differences in ERPs. The most frequently reported effect is that primed words attenuate the N400 component compared to non-primed words. Such N400 ‘‘effects’’ are believed by many to be sensitive to the lexical and/or semantic properties of the stimulus and its context. However，there was prominent debate about the meaning that the N400 effects reflected in the semantic processing. The Chinese characters are ideograms, which different with alphabetic script in strokes, structures and orthographic processing, etc. The present study used event-related potential recordings (ERPs) to explore the traits of semantic processing of Chinese character by adopting short interval masked priming and Go/Nogo paradigms. In order to avoid subjects use the different strategies across experiments, semantic/associated and repetition trials were included within a single session. Fifteen students were randomly chosen from a university. We adpoted a 2(Word Frequency：High and Low)×3(Priming Relationship：repetition priming，associative priming and control condition)within subjects design. Participants performed a semantic categorization task in which they were instructed to monitor all stimuli for occasional exemplars (probes) from the category of animal names, meanwhile there was no required to the critical prime or target stimuli. The results showed that in a short SOA(47ms)，the N400 effects between repetition priming and control condition had Significantly differences. At the same time, the differences between repetition priming and associative priming were also significant. However there was no significant differences between associative priming and control condition. For the earlier component of the N250，there was no evidence of any differences in all Priming relationship conditions. Moreover，Word Frequency did not affect the semantic processing. In conclusion，the current study demonstrated robust N400 effect in the repetition priming condition. However, there was no significant N400 effect in the associative priming condition. The N400 effect of repetition priming in Chinese character also might partly re?ect processing at a form-meaning interface that is sensitive to the compatibility of co-activated form and meaning representations. According to this study and the previous research ,we tentatively calculate that the orthographic processing between Chinese characters and alphabetic script word may be different, and the former is much more likely the whole processing. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Temporarily Established Self-Referential Cues on Inhibition of Return Tian-Yang ZHANG 2013, 36(2): 265-270.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Self-referential information is a special type of social signals, which can attract attention in a bottom-up fashion. Previous studies have found that, self-referential cues can be more efficient capturing reflexive attention at the early stage of perceptual processing. However, it is unclear whether self-referential cues are powerful enough to persistently modulate attention orientation even at the later stage of perceptual processing. To address this issue, we applied Posner’s cue-target paradigm to investigate whether the magnitude of inhibition of return (IOR) is modulated by temporarily established self-referential cues. Seventeen paid undergraduate students (aged between 19 and 24 years old; 8 females and 9 males) participated in this study. All participants were right-handed and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. The experiment was composed by an association training task and a spatial cueing task. In the association training task, we first trained participants to associate two colorful (red or green) squares with themselves or one of their friends, and then we tested that if the relationships of squares and meanings were fully established. In the spatial cueing task, we used a 3(Cue type: self-referential cue, friend-referential cue, meaningless cue)×2(Cue-target location: same, different) within-subject design. The trial began with a central fixation and two boxes on each side, after 800ms, a cue was shown randomly onscreen for 300ms in one side of boxes. After a 400ms delay (for a cue-target stimulus onset asynchrony of 700ms), the target asterisk was presented in any side of boxes. Participants were introduced to respond rapidly when they detected target asterisk appeared in the box. The experiment found that, (1) all participants had high accuracy in the association training task, and participants responded more quickly to the square associated with themselves than the one associated with a friend. (2) More importantly, in the spatial cueing task we found that, comparing to temporarily established friend-referential cues (22ms) and meaningless cues (21ms), temporarily established self-referential cues (2ms) triggered less magnitude of IOR. With further analyses, we identified the cause of less magnitude of IOR is，when the target was appeared at the cued location, participants provided quicker responses to the target after temporarily established self-referential cues (318ms), comparing to response to the target after temporarily established friend-referential cues (343ms) or meaningless cues (339ms). The results indicate that colored squares could be temporarily associated with self or a friend after a simple training procedure, and temporarily established self-referential cues could reduce the magnitude of IOR, and impel individuals to return more quickly to the location that paid attention to previously. In conclusion, those findings suggest that self-referential stimuli, as a sort of biologically important cues, could modulate attention even at the later stage of inhibition. The results also provided a new evidence for the view of IOR as an adaptive foraging facilitator designed to maximize our chances of detecting biologically important information in the visual field or organism’s surroundings. Related Articles | Metrics

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The difference of processing three English verb inflections for Chinese native speaker 2013, 36(2): 271-278.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Inflectional morphology is the modification of a word to fit its grammatical role. By adding suffix, they mark properties such as tense, number, gender, case, and so forth. Compared to native English speakers, it's difficult for second language learners to process inflected words even when they study abroad for many years. Previous studies suggested the processing of inflections involved two different memory systems: declarative memory system for storage of word knowledge and procedural memory system for processing of grammar, syntax and rules. For late second language learners, they rely more on declarative memory system to process inflections. However, whether the processing will turn into procedural processing, and what kind of rules or inflections can be processed by procedural memory system, these are all not clear. According to Ullman (2004), ERP patterns can reflect the mechanism of inflection processing through different patterns of component, such as latency and scalp distribution. Therefore, the present study adopted ERP measures to examine Chinese learners’ processing of English verbal inflections (the inflection of verb progressive tenses, -ing; the inflection of regular verb perfect tenses, -ed; and the inflection of irregular verb perfect tenses). Moving window paradigm was used in this research. Sixteen Chinese students who learn English as a second language participated in the experiment; they completed a grammatical judgment task, and ERPs were recorded by NeuroScan system at the same time. The materials contain 408 sentences, with 48 sentences per condition (grammatical/ungrammatical sentences with -ing; grammatical/ungrammatical sentences with -ed; grammatical/ungrammatical sentences with irregular verb inflections in perfect tense). Behavioral results suggested that, for late English learners, the processing of –ing are better than the other two inflections. ERP results showed that, the violation of -ing caused the component of P600, the violation of -ed caused the component of N400, while the violation of irregular verb perfect tenses didn’t produce any significant ERP components. Based on these findings, we concluded that the inflection of verb progressive tenses, the inflection of regular verb perfect tenses and the inflection of irregular verb perfect tenses which have no obvious affix do not share the same processing mechanism, the difference across English verbal inflections may be related to the complexity of inflectional rules. Related Articles | Metrics

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The advance and implication of the researches about neurocognitive mechanisms of sentence processing in second language Wang Pei 2013, 36(2): 279-283.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The researches about neurocognitive mechanisms of sentence processing in second language are at their stage of verification and exploration, primarily concentrating on the comparisons on reaction patterns between syntactic and semantic anomalies in native and second language. As for semantic processing of second language, the results are contradicted, which might be related to age of second language acquisition. For syntactic processing, second language learners showed their dependence on age of second language learning. Meanwhile, syntactic processing of second language depended on the similarities and discrepancies between native and second language, which might reveal the syntactic accessibility between them. The future studies should focus on the effects of systematic changes of semantic and syntactic accessibility on second language processing as well as the comparison on neurocognitive mechanisms between native speakers’ native and second language processing. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Perceptual Span of Junior High School Students and Oculomotor activity during the Reading of character or two-character word based Chinese sentences Gan FU Guo-Li Yan 2013, 36(2): 284-289.  Abstract ( )   PDF   To test the parafoveal preview effect and to examine the priority of the processing of Chinese reading on the condition of character based sentences or two-character based sentences, Two experiments were conducted using the eye-movement-contingent display change technique. 17 and other 12 junior high school students participated in. Their eye movements were recorded by an SR Eyelink-II head-mounted eye-tracker. A chin rest was provided to minimize head movements. The sampling rate was 500 Hz. Although viewing was binocular, eye movements were recorded from the right eye only. 92sentences were presented in 8viewing conditions(C,C+1R,C+2R,C+3R,C+4R,1L+C+4R,2L+C+4R, the whole line) to examine the character based sentences perceptual span of 17junior high school students in experiment1.And the other 92sentences composed with two-character word were presented in 6viewing conditions(W,W+1R,W+2R,1L+C+2R,2L+C+2R, the whole line) to examine the two-character word based sentences perceptual span of 12junior high school students in experiment2. After the participant had done a standard 9-point grid calibration (and validation), participants read the present experiment instructions. they were instructed to read the sentences for comprehension. At the start of each trial, a calibration dot appeared on the same position of the first character of the reading sentences, and participants were asked to look at it exactly. Then, were asked to press a button on a control pad. After the participant had pressed this button, the sentence appeared. After the participant finished reading the sentence, he/she pressed the button again, the sentence disappeared, and the drift correction dot appear again. Each participant read all 102sentences presented in this experiment. The results are as follows: (1)junior high school students’ perceptual span of Chinese character sentences was 1 character to the left of the fixated word and 2 character to its right, and the perceptual span of Chinese two-character words based sentences reading was 1 two-character word to the left of the fixated word and 1 two-character word to its right. (2)on two-character word based viewing condition, the perceptual span is larger than character based condition sentences. Conclusions: (1)The results indicate that the neighbors of the present fixating word affects the stages of lexical access, an interpretation consistent with E-Z model. (2)Our results favor of Chinese reading is word based processing. It is the new supporting of the idea that Chinese reading processing is word based but not character based. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The measurement for absolute thresholds of the Z?llner illusion 2013, 36(2): 290-295.  Abstract ( )   PDF   It is quite natural that we perceive erroneously what we see, and we can hardly correct the image even if we have noticed we are wrong, which is how visual illusion occurs. Since last century researchers have studied the relationship between the figure image and human behavior, the perceptional processing and the neuron system. Ironically, however, few of them have considered the basic condition or elements required when we want illusion to occur, and few of them focus on the famous Z?llner illusion even they discovered how the optical features influence the illusion amount. In addition, there lies opposite opinions whether the Z?llner illusion can be viewed as accumulation of separate Z?llner figures. So what we are curious of is the least condition that determines it, in other words, we are to measure the absolute threshold of the Z?llner illusion. In experiment I the variable is the quantity of interfering lines (1 to 9 pairs). Six men and ten women participated in. We chose the minimal-change method. Participants need to answer whether it looks parallel or not according to their very first sensation. When it comes to data analyzing, we firstly focus on the watershed of participants’ responses, finding that the threshold is 7 pairs of interfering lines when it’s oriented 90° and 5 pairs when it’s oriented 45°. The threshold has significant difference between increasing and decreasing blocks. Then we focus on the accumulated accuracy of their response, finding that the more interfering lines, the more illusion. Meanwhile, figures with 45° orientation is generally more erroneously perceived. In experiment II the variable is the gap between the main line and the interfering lines (0 to 20 pixels). Six men and twelve women participated in. The rest is exactly the same as experiment I. According to the results, the threshold is a 4.48-pixel gap of 90° orientation and a 6.58-pixel gap of 45° orientation. Significant difference between increasing and decreasing blocks occurs as well. Finally, the smaller the gap, the more illusion. 45° causes more illusion too. In experiment III the variable is the distance between the two main lines (67 to 197 pixels). Five men and nine women participated in. The rest is exactly the same. Results show the threshold is 131.73-pixel distance of 90° orientation and 124.44-pixel distance of 45° orientation. Significant difference between increasing and decreasing blocks occurs at the same time. As the distance increases, the percentage of illusive perception decrease at first and increase later, which indicates that the Z?llner illusion cannot be viewed as simple accumulation of separated figures. Still, 45° generally causes more illusion. Comparing the three experiments, figures with 45° orientation is more falsely perceived, showing the same result with former findings and fMRI support. In addition, the quantity of interfering lines can mostly determine this illusion, followed by the main line distance and the gap. Anticipation error causes significant difference between increasing and decreasing blocks in all experiments. We further analyze the beginning figures, which are exactly the same, in three experiments, and surprisingly find them perceived completely different, supporting that anticipation error should not be ignored. We guess it is the false attention distribution that causes this error, and this error may be a remarkable feature to distinguish normal perception and illusive perception. To summarize, the Z?llner illusion only occurs when: 1) there are more than 5 or 7 pairs of interfering lines in 45° and 90° orientation; 2) the gap between the interfering lines and the main line is less than 6.58 or 4.48 pixels each; 3) and the distance between the two main lines is less than 124.44 or 131.73 pixels each. Besides, we find that: 4) the studied variables can determine the Z?llner illusion in this strong-to-weak order: the quantity of interfering lines, the distance between the two main lines, and the gap between the main line and the interfering lines; 5) when the orientation of the main lines is 45°, illusions occur generally easier than when it’s 90 degrees; 6) in the perception of the Z?llner illusion, anticipation error is quite severe. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Different Attentional Cues on the Stroop Interfere Effect 2013, 36(2): 296-300.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Recent researches have suggested the attentional factors or processes, such as Stimulus Onset Asynchrony (SOA), inhibition of return (IOR)， and the spatial structure of stimuli, may affect the Stroop interfere effect, indicating the semantic interfere of the color word was conditional automatic. However, it was still unknown whether the factors above had interaction and whether their interaction impacted the Stroop interfere effect. Additionally, recent research doubted about the translation account (Virzi, 1985) in explaining the mechanism of the Stroop interfere effect. So it was necessary to give an inspection to this theory in a new paradigm. Thus, this study was designed according to cue-target paradigm and gave a further exploration to the mechanism of the classic Stroop interfere effect which is affected by the exogenous attentional cues above. In this study, SOA, the cue’s color and its spatial structure were operated to elicit different attentional processes. Forty two college students jointed the experiment and completed the color naming task. And the repeated-measure ANOVA showed the relationship between Stroop interfere effect and the attentional factors mentioned above. The result reveals that: (1) the IOR effect is not found in this experiment, and there is no interaction between SOA, the validity of the cue and the color of the cue. (2) The cue’s validity affect the Stroop interfere effect. If the cue is valid, the reaction time (RT) of the color naming task become shorter and the Stroop interfere effect come out; While if the cue is invalid, the RT become longer and the Stroop interfere effect disappear. (3) The color of the cue impact the Stroop interfere effect. If the color of the cue is consistence with the color of the color word, the Stroop interfere effect disappear; but if the color of the cue is consistence with the color of the color word, the Stroop interfere effect come out. The results indicates the Stroop interfere effect which emerges in this study is impacted by the cue’s color and its validity and the attentional processes which are induced by those two factors might be parallel. Additionally, this Stroop interfere effect is also in obedience to translation account. Keywords: Stroop interfere effect; cue-target paradigm; translation account theory References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Beneficial Effect of Attentional Capture on the Attentional Blink 2013, 36(2): 301-305.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract There are two different explanations for the Attentional Blink(AB)—a deficit in reporting the second of two targets when presented in close temporal succession: one is central capacity limitations, which assumes that the AB reflects an unavoidable resources limitation; the other is resources allocation, which describes the AB as a product of overinvestment of attentional resources. If the AB is determined by an allocation policy, it could be mediated not only through top-down task performances, but also by bottom-up stimulus variations. Although the flurry of recent findings showing that the AB can be attenuated in various mission requirements, few papers show that task-irrelevant stimulus character can attenuate the AB as well. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis of novel stimulus-driven Attentional Capture (AC) regarding the resources allocation mechanisms by which stimulus circumstances result in a reduced AB effect. An AB task varying in 4 color types was used. Type 1 was a standard AB task in which both the first target (T1) and the second (T2) were digits in an RSVP stream consisting of 18 interference letters, all black on a white background. Type 2-4 were largely the same as type 1 except for the following changes: both the T2 and T2-1(interference letter previous to T2) were red in type 2; the T2 in type 3 and T2-1 in type 4 were red too; the T2+1(interference stimulus next to T2, also named mask stimulus) kept the same color with T2 in 4 types respectively. In each type, the temporal distance between T1 and T2 was systematically varied in 2, 3, and 8 items (Lags 2, 3, and 8). Stimulus generation and response recording were done with E-Prime2.0. Each letter or digit was presented for 30ms, followed by a 70ms blank. Forty-six participants completed all 4 types. Their task was to identify both T1 and T2. An unspeeded response was made at the end of each trial by typing the digits on a standard keyboard. During the test, they were asked to ignore the interference letters or any possible changes in colors. Accuracy data were submitted to an analysis of repeated measuring variance with color type (1, 2, 3, and 4) and lag (2, 3, and 8) as variables. The results for T1 showed that color type and lag had no significant effects on AB task. The results for T2 when T1 was identified correctly showed that there was no interaction effect between color type and lag, F (6, 270) = .895, p = .503. The main effect of lag was significant, F(2,90) = 9.665，p < .001. Accuracy dropped after Lag 2 and then gradually increased again. There was a main effect of color type, F(3,135) = 4.405，p < .01. Performance was better overall in types 2, 3, and 4 than in type 1, F(1,45) = 11.576，p < .01, but there were no significant differences among types 2, 3, and 4, F(1,45) = 2.378，p = .130. These findings support the hypothesis that the AB is due to an allocation of limited attentional resources in stimulus processing. The patterns of resources allocation can be mediated by AC automatically. Driven by task-irrelevant novel information on T2-1 or T2, the AC can leave the excess of resources that would normally be allocated to T1 available for T2. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Characteristics of Speech Spectrum When Lying in The Lie Scale of Eysenck Personality Questionnaire 2013, 36(2): 306-310.  Abstract ( )   PDF   This research aimed at exploring the differences of speech spectrum of different phonemes(vowels or consonants) between telling lies and telling truths in the lie scale of Eysenck personality questionnaire(L scale). Because the voice can reflect a man’s emotional and physical state and telling lies may evoke physical arousal, we hypothesized that the speech spectrum during lying and truth-telling would be different. Forty-six subjects completed the Revised Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Short Scale for Chinese edited by Zhonggeng Chen, which has been demonstrated to be reliable and valid for Chinese participants. The inventory contains four personality trait scales: Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N), and Social Desirability (L). The L scale contains questions on which individuals tend to lie for social desirability, and the scoring standard is the same for everyone. If a participant received a score of one instead of zero on an L scale question, then this response was recorded as a lie. They were instructed to verbally answer the questions shown on a computer screen by E-Prime 2.0 with “yes” or “no”(/shi/ or /bushi/) in Chinese and their responses were recorded by the computer. Praat 5.1.30 software in a Windows 2003 operating system was used to analyze participants’ recorded voice samples. Measured speech spectrum parameters included fundamental frequency, frequency of the former three formants (F1, F2, F3), and bandwidth of the first three formants (B1, B2, B3). We analyzed the speech spectrum parameters of both the consonant /sh/ and the vowel /i/ in the present study because it has been previously demonstrated that the position and motion of oral cavity, larynx and tongue are different between consonants and vowels when they are pronounced. The responses of “yes” and “no” were also analyzed separately in order to control the influences of /bu/ to /sh/ and /i/. Consistent with our hypothesis, Paired Sample t Test showed that: when participants responded with “yes”, the effects of lying were significant or margin significant on F1, F3, and B1 of the consonant /sh/ (p=.074，p=.032，p=.069, respectively); when participants responded with “no”, the effects of lying were significant on F1, F2, and F3 of the consonant /sh/ (p=.037，p=.020，p=.015, respectively); There was not any significant effect of lying on the speech spectrum of /bu/ and the vowel /i/ in whatever kind of responses (all ps > .10). The results of this research indicated that it was effective to distinguish telling lies and telling truths through speech spectrum analysis. In addition, the effects of lying on the speech spectrums of different phonemes may be varied. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Semantic Relationship on Parafoveal-on-Foveal Effects Xiao-Yu HU 2013, 36(2): 311-314.  Abstract ( )   PDF   One of the main controversies in the field of eye movements in reading concerns the question of whether the processing of two adjacent words in reading occurs in sequence, or in parallel. This research tries to distinguish between these views by analyzing parafoveal-on-foveal effects in the course of lexical processing. Parafoveal-on-foveal (POF) effects occur when lexical properties of word n influence processing on word n－1 during reading. Different eye movement models of reading hold diverse assumption on POF effects. The E-Z Reader model, one of the best known serial attention allocation models, assumed that the POF effect are null because the attention on adjacent words is serial and the processing of word n－1 should not be influenced by the lexical processing of word n. But the parallel model SWIFT considered that the word within a perceptual span could be processed in parallel. The parafoveal processing difficulty would slow down foveal processing and the positive POF effects should be found. In the other hand, Kennedy reported an inverted parafoveal-on-foveal effect. Parafoveal processing difficulty decrease processing time on the foveal word while reading. He referred to this process as magnetic attraction. Normally, the argument to the results of POF effects focused on whether the effects were caused by saccade error. And the boundary paradigm, the most commonly used paradigm in the POF effects study, could raise saccade error and lack in balancing saccade error between experimental conditions. A new paradigm called distraction paradigm was adopted in this study to control the saccade error. The present study examined whether semantic POF effects could occur in Chinese sentence reading. 26 collage students participated in this research, average age 20.8（SD=1.6）. All participants were university students and spoke Chinese as their native language. 92 pairs of semantic related and unrelated words with word n－1 were selected. The semantic related and unrelated word n were inserted behind word n－1 directly in italic style and all participants were told to ignore them. The first pass fixation data of word n－1 were analyzed. The size of each character was 1.30cm×1.30cm (33 pixel×33 pixel). With a viewing distance of 75cm, one character space subtended approximately 0.9°of visual angle. The results showed that, compared to the related word n condition, the gaze duration of word n－1 was longer in unrelated word n condition, the refixation rate of word n－1 was also higher in unrelated condition. The semantic relationship between two adjacent words would affect the processing of word n－1 and the positive POF effects in Chinese reading were found in this study. The results supported the view that the semantic information from the parafoveal word could be processed with foveal word in parallel. And the results sustained the assumption of the typical parrel model, SWIFT model. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Electrophysiological Mechanisms of Prototype-heuristics Insight in the Chinese Riddles Solving 2013, 36(2): 315-319.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Insight is one of the important ways to study creativity. A recent surge of interest into the neural underpinnings of insight has produced a banquet of research. Prototype heuristic theory is one of the cognitive mechanisms of insight proposed by china scholars recently. A lot of behavioral studies have shown that the theory can be divided into two parts: the prototype activation and heuristic information activation. These studies provide some evidences that the activation of the prototype came as a result of automatic processing and the activation of heuristic information in prototype maybe the result of controlled processing. Since there is no direct electrophysiological evidence to support the theory of two-stage view, therefore, this study explored the physiological mechanism of the prototype heuristics, using the ERP technique with characteristics of high temporal resolution, selected logogriph (a riddle about a Chinese Character) problem as the material. The experiments used the learning- test two-phase paradigm, the two phases of which are the learning phase and the test phase. Specifically, we used the called “five to five” experimental paradigm. 14 participants took part in the experiment. In the learning phase, the subjects learned five prototypical logogriphs in a random order. In the test phase, the subjects solved five target logogriphs paired with the prototypical logogriphs studied previously in a random order. The task for the subjects was to solve the target logogriphs based on the heuristic information obtained in the learning phase. In this study a Single-factor three-level experimental design was used. The three-level was: common component conditions (CCC), uncommon component conditions (UCC) and baseline conditions (BC). The results of the experiment showed that there is no significant difference among three conditions between 300 and 500 ms and CCC and UCC elicited a more positive ERP deflection (P800–1700) than did BC between 800 and 1700ms. We presumed that the insignificant difference between 300 and 500 ms maybe indicated that the activation of the prototypal logogriph from five was same in three conditions, which indicated that the activation of prototype logogriphs might be automatic. The P800-1700 component maybe reflected the application of the heuristic information to the test logogriph and getting the answer successfully. Subjects cannot solve the test logogriph directly from the heuristic information obtain from learning phase until access to the deep links between them. But in the baseline conditions, subjects can solve the logogriph in test phase based on heuristic information. These results might reflect the higher creative level in CCC and UCC conditions than that in BC condition. Additionally, the waveform elicited by CCC and UCC conditions was tend to consistent, which indicated that the same text may not be the key of prototype heuristics. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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A Comparative Event-related Potential Study on Cartoon Face Classification and Recognition Processing 2013, 36(2): 320-327.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Event-related potential (ERP) technique was used to study the brain mechanism of cartoon face classification processing，and investigate the differences between cartoon face classification and cartoon face recognition processing. Cartoon face classification experiment: 26 volunteers were chosen from a domestic university, aged from 18 to 23. All the volunteers were right-handed and had normal vision or corrected vision. None of them were color blind, nor had they any history of mental illness or taking psychotropic drugs. The materials used in Experiment I were 450 cartoon human faces and cartoon animal faces. Neuroscan EEG acquisition system was used in the experiment. 32-channel EEG was recorded at a sampling rate of 1000Hz using averaged mastoids reference. With invalid data rejected, 25 volunteers were accepted. The amplitude and latency of N170 (T5,T6), VPP (Cz) and LPP(F3，Fz，F4，FC3，FCz，FC4，C3，Cz，C4，P3，Pz，P4，O1，Oz and O2) components were obtained by off-line analysis. Behavioral data and ERP data were analyzed by SPSS 13.0 through multi-factors repeated measure ANOVA method. The results: The RT(reaction time) of human faces were significantly shorter than that of animal faces; RT of square faces were significantly shorter than those of round faces and triangle faces; RT of females were shorter than that of males; The amplitudes of VPP of square faces were significantly larger than those of round faces and triangle faces; VPP latency of animals were significantly longer than that of humans, and VPP latency of girls were significantly shorter than that of boys; The amplitude of N170 showed right hemisphere dominance in face classification; The average amplitude of LPP in parietal lobe and central area were larger than those in frontal lobe, post frontal area and occipital lobe. Cartoon face recognition experiment: The subjects were the same as tested in the cartoon face classification experiment. The materials used in Experiment II were 255 cartoon human face pictures and 255 cartoon cars pictures, in which the human faces pictures were the same as used in the first experiment. The subjects’ task was to tell if the picture was about a car or a face. Data recording, processing and analysis were the same as used in the previous experiment. The results: The RT of recognition task were significantly shorter than that of classification task; N170 showed right hemisphere dominance in face classification; The amplitudes of VPP and LPP of recognition task were significantly lower than those of classification task; The VPP latency of females were shorter than that of males; The average amplitude of LPP in parietal lobe and central area were larger than those in the frontal lobe, post frontal area and occipital lobe. Conclusion: Face classification processing in brain is slower and stronger than the recognition processing, which may be because the former processing needs more psychological resources; People are better at processing human faces than animal faces; Parietal lobe and central area are probably the principal brain regions for face classification processing; Females have an advantage over males in intensity and speed in face processing; Structural coding and feature coding may be parallel during face processing. In the averaged mastoids reference condition, VPP is a good indicator to reflect face structural encoding, and is better than N170; LPP is an important indicator to reflect face classification processing. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Vertical-Spatial Metaphor of Emotions in Text Reading 2013, 36(2): 328-334.  Abstract ( )   PDF   “Metaphors we live by ”which is written by Lakoff and Johnson puts forward that met- aphors exist generally in daily life, covering language, thought and behavior, almost everywhere. They consider that spatial metaphor is the most important and basic cognitive domain in all the m- etaphors. The vertical-spatial metaphor is a cognitive style which is mapping from up-down spati- al orientation concept to other cognitive domains. In this paper, two experiments were conducted to investigate the psychological reality of the vertical-spatial metaphor of emotions which is "hap- py is up, sad is down" in text reading. In experiment 1, 25 participants are assigned to read an emotional discourse presenting sente- nce by sentence at first, then to react to the letter "F" or "J" presenting above or below the screen. The purpose of the experiment is to explore whether reading different emotional discourses would produce vertical-spatial metaphor or not. The results show that subjects react quickly to the letters which present above the spatial location while reading positive emotional discourses, and react qu- ickly to the letters which present in the bottom of the spatial location while reading negative emot- ional discourses. In other words, there is a mapping from the source domain to the target domain of the vertical-spatial metaphor of emotions in text. In experiment 2, 30 participants read text containing a spatial displacement at first, then judge the gender of the emotional pictures presenting above or below the screen at random by unrelating task paradigm. The purpose of the experiment is to explore whether reading different discourses c- ontaining different spatial displacements would affect responses to different emotional pictures of subjects or not. Because the locations of the emotional pictures are presenting at random, the effe- ct of its presenting position to the results of the experiment has been balanced, and we needn’t co- nsider of the effect of it. The results show that the spatial factors affect the reactions to emotional pictures. That is, subjects response fast to positive emotional pictures while reading discourse con- taining moving up in space, and response fast to negative emotional pictures while reading discou- rse containing moving down in space.In other words, there is a mapping from the target domain to the source domain of vertical-spatial metaphor of emotions in text. This study reveals that the vertical-spatial metaphor of emotions exist in discourse context, and there is a bidirectional mapping between space, the original domain, and mood, the target domain in nature. Related Articles | Metrics

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Influence of Emotional Faces for Different Location on Inhibition of Return 2013, 36(2): 335-339.  Abstract ( )   PDF   In the current study, two experiments were conducted to investigate the influence of emotional faces on IOR with 90 emotional face pictures (positive, negative, and neutral) as the cues or the targest. Twenty participants in each experiment were instructed to complete the task of judging the location of the target. Separate average were computed for all combinations of cues (valid and invalid) and cue emotional valence (positive, negative and neutral) in Experiment 1 and of cues and target emotional valence in Experiment 2. ANOVAs were conducted on reaction time for each experiment. In experiment 1, only the main effect of cues was reliable, indicating IOR is a mechanism of blindness. In experiment 2, both the main effect of cues, and the interaction of cues and target emotional valence were significant, implying the modulation of emotional faces on IOR. In summary, we found that IOR was dissociated when the emotional faces appeared in the cue location, verifying the stability of IOR. But the IOR to the neutral faces was lager than that to the positive and negative faces when the faces acted as the target in cue-target paradigm. The results indicate that IOR is not affected by the biological cues, but will be affected by the nature of targets, suggesting that the evolutionary of IOR and the emotional bias are separate mechanisms. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Mechanism of Individuals with Different Cognitive Styles Inhibiting the Inappropriate Meaning of Ambiguous Words Guang-Zhen JIA 2013, 36(2): 340-343.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Lexical ambiguity resolution is the process whereby the inappropriate meaning of ambiguous word was inhibited and the appropriate meaning was selected. There are two views about inhibiting the inappropriate meaning of ambiguous words in sentences comprehension, one is that multiple meanings of ambiguous words is activated firstly, then the inappropriate meaning was eliminated from the working memory (Swinney, 1979; Marson & Just, 2007), another is that the inappropriate meaning was prevented from activating at first (Sereno, 1995). Cognitive styles mean the preference to depend on internal inference or external inference in processing information, individuals tend to depend on internal inference were classified as field dependence, while individuals depend on external inference more were classified as field independence. Previous studies found that the capacity of cognitive reconstruction of field independence is significantly higher than that of field dependence (Witkin & Goodenough, 1981). In order to acquire the correct sentence meaning, it is necessary to reconstruct the sentence representation in the process of the lexical disambiguity in sentence comprehension. However, no study explored the different mechanism of individuals with different cognitive styles in inhibiting the lexical ambiguity. The aim of this experiment is to explore the different mechanism between field independence and field dependence in inhibiting the inappropriate meaning of ambiguous words and the disambiguity mechanism of ambiguous words. The force-paced moving windows paradigms and semantic congruity judging tasks were employed in our research. The fixed design is 2 (Cognitive Styles: field dependence, field independence) × 2 (ISI: 150ms, 800ms) × 2 (Sentence Type: ambiguous sentence, unambiguous sentence), Cognitive Styles and Sentence Type are between variables, and ISI is within variable. ANOVA analysis found an three factors interaction among Cognitive Styles, Sentence Type and ISI (F1(1, 56) =4.22，p<0.05；F2(1, 31) =5.03，p<0.05), further analysis showed that a significant main effect of Sentence Type was found for field dependence (F1(1, 28) =45.53，p<0.001；F2(1, 31) =32.75，p<0.001), but no interaction between Sentence Type and ISI was found, which means that there was significantly difference between the ambiguous sentences and unambiguous sentences both at 150ms and at 800ms after ambiguous words for field dependence; for field independence, however, an interaction between Sentence Type and ISI was found (F1(1, 28) =15.00，p<0.01；F2(1, 31) =17.87，p<0.01), at 150ms after ambiguous words, significant difference between ambiguous sentence and unambiguous sentence was found (F1(1, 28)=41.34，p<0.001；F2(1, 31)=36.30，p<0.001), while there was no significant difference between ambiguous sentence and unambiguous sentence at 800ms after ambiguous words. These findings indicated that field independence inhibited the inappropriate meanings of ambiguous words at 800ms after the ambiguous words, while field dependence did not inhibit the inappropriate meanings of ambiguous words at the same time point (800ms). In a word, field independence inhibited the inappropriate meanings of ambiguous words earlier than field dependence. Meanwhile, the results indicated that the multiple meanings of ambiguous words were activated firstly, then the meaning inconsistent with context was inhibited, which supported the Multiple Access Model References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Implicit mood-congruent memory with and without awareness in dysphoria: An event-related potentials study 2013, 36(2): 344-349.  Abstract ( )   PDF   To discriminate the ERP difference of the awareness and unawareness processing of mood-congruent memory, event-related potentials (ERPs) were used while subjects completed the improved implicit mood-congruent memory test. The results indicated the overlap of awareness and unawareness processing in the time-windows (150ms-200ms), the separation of awareness and unawareness processing and negative mood-congruent memory bias in the unawareness processing of the dysphoric subjects in the time-windows (250ms-350ms), and the negative mood-congruent memory bias in the unawareness processing of two groups in the late time-windows(400ms-800ms). Altogether, these results explore the weakness of unawareness processing in implicit memory and the negative mood-congruent memory bias in dysphoria during the time-windows (250ms-350ms). References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Asymmetry Model of Lexical and Semantic Representations in Less Proficient Mongolian-English Bilinguals 2013, 36(2): 350-355.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Early research on the representation and processing of information in bilingual memory debated whether the two languages were stored and accessed together or separately in memory. In recent years, it is an important issue for how the connection between words and their meanings is developed with increasing proficient in the L2. Results from previous studies led to the conclusion that the representations models were different between high proficient bilinguals and less proficient bilinguals. However, the conclusion has been supported by some experiments based on explicit memory tasks. Therefore, we conducted the present study to explore the lexical and conceptual representation model of the less proficient bilinguals, using cross-language repetition priming which is based on implicit memory tasks. In the present study, Participants included 165 junior students with English as their second language. The students were non-English-majors whose scores of CET band 4 were between 280 and 350. All experiments and data collection were managed by E-prime on computers, to assure accurate reaction time measurement. Participants were instructed to complete the lexical decision task in experiment 1, but the conceptual decision task in experiment 2.There were 2 phases in each experiment, the study phase and the test phase. The reaction time and accurate rates were analyzed by SPSS 17.0, using a two-way repeated measure ANOVA with language group as a between-participant factor (same language, cross language) and trials type as a within-participant factor (studied trials, non-studied trials). There was no cross language repetition priming effect in experiment 1 in cross language condition. The response time to the words studied was significantly faster than that to the words unstudied in experiment 2 both in same language condition and cross language condition. In experiment 2 there was symmetrical in within-language repetition priming effect, but the asymmetrical pattern of between-language. In other words, the response time to the words studied was significantly faster than that to the words unstudied in English-Mongolian condition, but no cross language repetition priming effect in Mongolian-English condition. The result of the two experiments indicated that, for less proficient bilinguals, lexical representations are separate. To our surprise, conceptual representations for translation equivalents are shared but asymmetrical. Further, our results support the Revised Hierarchical Model. Related Articles | Metrics

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Category Learning Blocking and Dual-processing Account Lin CHEN ZHENG YunJia 2013, 36(2): 356-363.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Most models indicate that category learning is a kind of associated learning driven by reducing categorization errors. According to this kind of accounts, people learn features useful for categorization solely. In contrast, some researchers indicate that different from association learning, category learning is a high level cognitive learning, and people like to learn more features than classification. A dual-processing account was advanced to describe category learning mechanism, which indicated there were both an error-driven associative mechanism and a cognitive mechanism in category learning. Three experiments inspected the dual-processing account in a blocking paradigm. According to the dual-processing account, features that were useful for categorization would block some other features learning. In experiment 1, features were presented randomly to investigate the blocking in category learning. The results showed that some nondefining features had been learned; even they were blocked by pre-learning of defining features, which supported the dual-processing account of category learning. Defining features were defined on the top of exemplars in Experiment 2 to prevent participants learning nondefining features by searching for defining features. Consistent with Experiment 1, the results supported the dual-processing account too. Different with the sentence described categories in Experiment 1 & 2, figure categories were adopted in Experiment 3 and similar results were found. In all three experiments, defining features blocked some nondefining features learning. The dual-processing account has been verified in different feature presentations and category materials. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Adolescent Immoral Behaviours on Internet and Parenting Style 2013, 36(2): 372-377.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Morality has always been the focus in psychology and philosophy study. In psychology researches, many researchers have been done some contributions. Meanwhile, lots of psychological theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of human morality. We can find that a lot of people have accurate moral judgments, but they have some immoral behaviors. Some researchers started to figure out the question why moral people did immoral behavior. Recently, lots of studies indicated that moral emotion can play important role in the moral behaviors. Otherwise, some psychologists explored the new psychological mechanism of moral behaviors. So, Bandura’s social cognition theory became the base of moral study, again. Moral disengagement, a cognitive process, can make self-control fail to inhibit the immoral decision and the immoral behavior. In Bandura’s explain of the concept and process of moral disengagement, there are eight mechanisms (moral justification, euphemistic labeling, advantageous comparison, displacement of responsibility, diffusion of responsibility, distorting consequences, attribution of blame, dehumanization). Our society and educational system ugly want to acknowledge why some adolescents did immoral behaviors. And our parents need to comprehend how to deal with the immoral behaviors and the deviant adolescents. So analyzing the immoral behaviors on internet is very important. This study wanted to build a model about the relationship between individual trait, family factors and adolescent immoral behavior. We also focus the role of moral identity, social responsibility, moral disengagement on the relationship between parenting style and immoral behaviors on line. The study wants to display the influence of parenting style, social responsibility, moral identity and moral disengagement on the adolescent immoral behavior on line. There are 764 participants attending this research. Completing five questionnaires, data are analyzed through structural equation model. The final model indicated that there is no direct path between parenting style and immoral behavior. And there is a direct relationship between moral identity and immoral behavior. Moral disengagement can mediate the relationship between moral identity (and responsibility) and immoral behavior. Meanwhile, moral identity and social responsibility can mediate the relationship between moral disengagement and parenting style. The results indicated the magnificent function of the moral disengagement on the relationship between parenting style and the immoral behaviors. Specially speaking, the pathway involved the moral disengagement can explain almost the effect of parenting style on the adolescent immoral behaviors on line. Finally, the implications and the inferences are discussed in the article. Our study indicated that we need more moral practices education rather than moral principles education. Meanwhile, our school and teacher should pay more attention on the absurd explanation to immoral behavior of adolescents. We should pay more attention on the moral identity that shows the importance of moral trait in self. Although our research show that reject parenting didn’t predict adolescent immoral behavior, the parenting style can influence immoral behavior indirectly (through the mediation effect).So parents need diminish reject and increase warmth and response to children. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Emotional Resilience and Gender on Judgment Bias in Process of the Nature of Negative Emotion Incidents 2013, 36(2): 378-382.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Although many researchers have explored that emotion had important impacts in process of social information(e.g., Crick & Dodge, 1994; Dodge & Price, 1994; Weary & Edwards, 1994; Coyne & Whiffen, 1995; Bryan, Sullivan-Burstein, & Mathur, 1998;Lememerise & Dodge, 2000; Orobio de Castro, Slot, Bosch, et al., 2003; Scott & Zhang, 2004) , but most of these researches had focused on how to evoke emotion in a variety of emotional stimulus through direct sensory stimulation by providing emotional materials under the strict experimental conditions, having no notice that all of these emotions were single, experimental and situational emotions which had no real social significance and sense in people’s true living.In addition to, most of these researches had ignored the regulation function of emotional ability in process of social emotional information. In order to avoid the defects above, in this study,test and experimental methods were used to reveal the effects of emotional resilience and gender on judgment bias in process of the nature of negative emotion incidents,by 97 adolescents as the subjects,stories of negative emotional situations as test method,four typical negative emotional incidents in adolescent’s daily life as the experimental materials, and emotional resilience and gender as the key variables. In this study, we developed some stories of negative emotional situations with good reliabilities firstly,then had these stories as experimental materials to experimental study.The results of the experimental study showed that:(1) Emotional resilience has some effects on judgment bias on the nature of negative emotion incidents,adolescents of low emotional resilience have more obvious negative judgment than that of adolescents of high emotional resilience when they had experienced negative emotions incidents under the situation of general life.(2) Gender has no substantive effects on judgment bias on the nature of negative emotion incidents. Based on current findings,we suggest that researchers should pay more attention to adolescents’ cognitive characteristics in process of social emotional information and the important function of emotional resilience when adolescence confronts with negative emotional incidents.In addition to,in the future researches, researchers may explore the intrinsic neural mechanisms of different emotional resilience individuals in process of negative emotion information by advanced technologies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Children’s Aggression and Victimization: mediating effect of social preference and its Gender Difference Xiao-Jun Sun Yongxin Zhang Zhou Zongkui 2013, 36(2): 383-389.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract Two inventories developed to assess the relationships among overt aggression, relational aggression, social preference and victimization, the Peer nomination and the Class Play, were administered to a sample(N=455)of elementary school boys and girls from grade 4 to grade 6. Besides, the mediator effects of social preference between overt aggression, relational aggression and victimization for boys and girls were tested separately. The results were as follows: First, the correlation among all the variables were significant, and the correlation between overt aggression and social preference, relational aggression and social preference for boys is more significant than for girls. Second, the gender differences were significant on overt aggression and social preference. Third, there was mediated effect of social preference between overt aggression and victimization as well as between relational aggression and victimization. Moreover, overt aggression and relational aggression in boys group had a more greatly forecasting function to social preference; and social preference in girls group had a more greatly forecasting function to victimization; there were no gender difference on the path coefficient from overt aggression and relational aggression to children’s victimization. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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An experimental study of the influence about students' perception of school moral atmosphere on their moral development 2013, 36(2): 390-394.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The purpose of this study was to explore the relation between the students' perception of school moral atmosphere and their moral development, to study whether an educational intervention can improve the students’ perceptual level of school moral atmosphere, thus promoting students’ moral development. The study uses perception of school moral atmosphere questionnaire to check students' perceived level of school moral atmosphere and uses the Sociomoral Reflection Objective Measure–Short Form (SROM-SF) to check students' ability of moral judgment and takes the self-designed justice and care school moral situation stories as experimental materials, and respectively uses the situational discussions and cosplay to intervene experiment. The research object is randomly selected 100 students in a middle school, divided into 5 groups, including A, B, C, D groups are the experimental groups, E group is contrast group. In the experiment, A and B experimental groups were justice intervention, and C, D experimental groups were care intervention; A, C experimental group adopt situation discussion to intervene, while B, D experimental groups adopt cosplay to intervene. Each experimental group do intervention training twice a week, every time for 45 minutes or so, and the intervention period is 30 days. The study adopts perception of school moral atmosphere questionnaire and SROM-SF to pre-test and post-test separately before and after the experiment, and uses SPSS 15 for Windows to analysis research data. The results show that, through intervention experiment, the perceived level of students’ school moral atmosphere has been improved in different degrees, and their moral judgment capability has been significantly enhanced. The conclusion of this research is that through education intervention to improve the students' perceived level of school moral atmosphere is possible, and students' perception of school moral atmosphere can affect the moral judgment ability, enhances the students’ the perceptual level of moral atmosphere, can be effective in promoting the moral development. the results of this study can be considered: the future research can investigate students' moral sensitivity on students' perceptions of school moral atmosphere regulation and psychological mechanism, explore students personal variables, school moral atmosphere variables and relationships of students’ explicit moral behaviors variables, thus deepening the understanding on the relationship between school moral culture and students' moral development, and provide scientific basis to create good school moral atmosphere and improve the effectiveness of moral education. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Negative Life Events, Parental Bonding and Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders in Adolescents 18 Months After Exposed to the Wenchuan Earthquake 2013, 36(2): 395-400.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Disasters and other traumatic events have long-term effects on human mental health. Numerous studies have reported that anxiety and related emotional disorders are very common among youth after exposed to earthquake. And studies also indicate that recent stressful life events and poor parental bonding relationship increase the risk of anxiety disorders in general population. The purpose of this study was to describe the prevalence of anxiety and related emotional disorders and to explore the relationship among negative life events, parental bonding and anxiety and related emotional disorders in adolescents 18 months after exposed to the Wenchuan earthquake. This study is a part of the longitudinal study of adolescents’ mental health problem following 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. A total of 1021 senior students were sampled in Dujiangyan, which was seriously damaged by the earthquake. Participants were asked to fill out a self-administrate questionnaire, which includes the Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED), Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), the Adolescent Self-rating Life Event Checklist (ASLEC) and general demographics and earthquake exposure. The mean age of the participants was 16.54 years (SD=0.54) at 18 months post the earthquake. Of these students, 57%were female, 82% were only-child, and 61% were urban children. With regards to earthquake exposures, 14% participants reported dead or missing family members in the earthquake, 69% reported their house were severely damaged, and 56% had witnessed the tragic events directly. At 18 months following the earthquake, the prevalence of anxiety and related emotional disorders in adolescents was 41.4%. Student t tests results showed that females (t=-5.96, p<0.001), participants from rural areas (t=3.28, p<0.01), and participants with family member dead in the earthquake (t=2.25, p<0.05) reported more anxiety symptoms. With regards to parents bonding, males perceived more father’s autonomy (t=1.99, p<0.05), only-child perceived more father’s care (t=2.66, p<0.01), urban children perceived more mother’s overprotection (t=-3.29, p<0.01). Multiple regression showed that negative life events (?=0.529, p<0.001), father’s care (?=-0.104, p<0.001), mother’s and father’s overprotection (?=0.16, p<0.001; ?=0.148, p<0.001) were significant predictors of adolescents’ anxiety and related emotional disorders. Our results also indicated that the moderating role of mother's over protection (?=-0.08, p<0.001) and father’s autonomy (?=0.125, p<0.001) between negative life events and anxiety and related emotional disorders was significant. Anxiety disorders are very common among survival adolescents at 18 months following the earthquake. Recent stressful life events and poor parental bonding increase the risk for anxiety; meanwhile parental bonding can moderate the relationship between stressful life event and anxiety. These findings highlight the importance of parents bonding for adolescents’ mental health problems. Related Articles | Metrics

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Affective Prosody in Children Suffering From Mental Retardation in spontaneous speech 2013, 36(2): 401-405.  Abstract ( )   PDF   This paper analyses the expressive affective prosody of children suffering from Mental Retardation (MR) in comparison to typically developing children in spontaneous speech, with the hopes of furthering research into the following: (1) whether or not there is damage to the affective prosody of MR; (2) whether the development of the affective prosody of MR develops with vocabulary, syntax and other linguistic factors. For the experiment, 18 MR were chosen, 18 typically developing children matched to the MR group for chronological age (CA), 18 typically developing children matched to the MR group for language abilities (LA) were recruited. Subjects are required to say a narrative using the picture book Frog, Where are you (Mayer, 1969). Data were collected from each child individually in a quiet room, using the voice recorder recorded the spontaneous speech of the children in the entire narrative task, intercepted the climax of the narrative as the experiment material. Using the cross-platform multifunction phonetic software PRAAT, the pitch range and vowel duration of the climax section were extracted as two major influences in affective prosody, the data from which was used to make a database in Microsoft Excel, then spss15.0 was used for statistical analysis, undertaking a one way ANOVA. Results showed: the pitch range of MR showed a significant difference with the two typically-developed groups of p=.000<.001, significantly higher than the two typical groups; with regard to the vowel duration, the MR showed a significant difference with CA group of p=.000<.001, but the difference with LA group was not significant (p=.371>.05), both the MR and the LA group were found to use significantly longer vowels than the CA group. According to the experimental data, the following conclusions were made in spontaneous speech : (1) The affective prosody of MR shows damage in spontaneous speech, displaying atypical characteristics, the difference in pitch range being the most atypical display. (2) The affective prosody of MR develops significantly later than vocabulary and syntax, with a concentrated performance in the pitch range, indicating that affective prosody possesses modularity in spontaneous speech. This paper conducted research into the affective prosody of MR in spontaneous speech from the perspective of neurolinguistics, which is the first time in the country. In addition, this paper used the method of experimental phonetics, using of phonetic software PRAAT to calculate the acoustic parameters, and giving the qualitative and quantitative analysis. This kind of research into the phonetic problems of MR has not yet been otherwise researched domestically. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Developmental Trends in 4～6 years old Children’s Metamemory Monitoring 2013, 36(2): 406-410.  Abstract ( )   PDF   This study explored the developmental tendency of young children’s (4～6 year old) metamemory monitoring (EOL/JOL/JOC), including the age differences on the level, the developing speed and the metamemory efficiency. There were 91 children randomly selected to participate. Items were 20 pairs of pictures, in which half were antonymous picture pairs, and the remaining half were unrelated pictures pairs. Two of 10 pairs were used to practice. The remaining 8 pairs were randomly displayed by computer for 3 s each, with an interval of 2 s. Before studying, participants were asked to make an aggregate EOL by responding to a question. Following the EOL, participants studied 8 pairs only once and made their JOL for 8 pairs by responding to a question followed by a cued-recall test. The experimenter instructed them to make an aggregate judgment of confidence. A MANOVA, Age(3)×Item difficulty (2:easy vs. hard), was carried out. The results yielded overall main effect was significant, Wilks’λ= .91, p <.05, for age, Wilks’λ= .72, p <.05, for item difficulty and Wilks’λ= .93, p =.58, for the interaction. The interaction of age and item difficulty was significant on JOC and we conducted a simple effect, the main effect of age was significant when task was difficult, M= 1.44, SD =1.46, for 4-year-old, M= .65, SD =.71, for 5-year-old, and M= .46, SD =.61, for 6-year-old. Secondly, the slope of development curve was computed to examine the differences in developmental rate (EOL/JOL/JOC). When the task was difficult the magnitude of slope as follows: k JOC = .79, k EOL = .06, k JOL =.40, for the age of 4-5, and k EOL =.71, k JOL =.54, k JOC =.19, for the age of 5-6. Finally, a Paired t–test was used to compare the differences between predicted recall and actual recall. Under the easy task condition, the difference were significant, tEOL(30)=-5.38,p<.001; tJOL(30)=-4.01,p<.001;tJOC(30)=-3.08,p<.01,for 4-year- old, tEOL(29)=-6.51,p<.001, only for EOL of 5-year-old, and the difference was not significant for 6-year-old . All of children overestimated their recall performance when the task was difficult. The conclusions as follows: children’s monitoring accuracy increases from 4 to 6 years old. Accuracy is better on an easy task than a difficult task. The developing speed of 3 monitoring judgments is different, under the difficult task condition, JOC is the first one at the age of 4～5, EOL and JOL develop quickly at the age of 5～6. All of children exhibit to overestimate their recall performance when the task was difficult. Whereas, under the easy task condition, 4-year-old children underestimate their actual recall; 5-year-old children exhibit accurate monitoring on JOL and JOC, but they underestimate their actual recall on EOL; 6-year-old children exhibit accurate monitoring on EOL, JOL and JOC. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Maternal Psychological Control and Adolescents’ Problematic Internet Use: The Mediating Role of Maladaptive Cognition 2013, 36(2): 411-416.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The purpose of the current study was to investigate: 1) the relationship between maternal psychological control and adolescents’ problematic Internet use (PIU); 2) whether this relationship was mediated by maladaptive cognition about Internet use; 3) whether there is gender difference on the direct and indirect relationships between maternal psychological control and PIU. Participants were 660 middle school students (mean age = 14.14 years, 364 females) recruited from a southern province in mainland China. During a school-based assessment, participants completed Maternal Psychological Control Questionnaire, Maladaptive Cognition about Internet Use Questionnaire, and Problematic Internet Use Scale. Hierarchical linear regression analyses showed that: (1) after controlling for gender, age, and family economic conditions, psychological control was positively associated with PIU (β = 0.22, p < 0.001). (2) Maladaptive cognition partially mediated the relationship between psychological control and PIU (the mediated effect accounted for 71.2% of the total effect). (3) Males had higher levels of PIU than females. However, no significant moderating effects of gender was found on the direct (including both overall and residual effects) or indirect (including the relationship between maternal psychological control and maladaptive cognition as well as the relationship between maladaptive cognition and PIU) relationships between maternal psychological control and PIU. In conclusion, we build on and contribute to existing literature in several important ways. First, maternal psychological control is positively related to adolescents’ PIU, which is different from behavioral control. Even though psychological control is more popular among Chinese parents than those of western countries, it is indeed a risk factor for adolescents’ development. Second, maladaptive cognition partially mediates the relationship between maternal psychological control and PIU, which indicates that the underlying mechanism of maternal psychological control impacting on adolescents’ PIU consists of both direct and indirect paths. Finally, even though significant gender difference is found on PIU, gender difference is found neither on the direct nor indirect relationship between maternal psychological control and PIU. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of the Group Member Construction of Peer Interactionon the Primary School Students’ Creative Problem Finding Qin Han Wei-Ping HU Xiao-juan JIA 2013, 36(2): 417-423.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As an important form of classroom interaction, peer interaction plays a very important role in group learning. It can promote students’ development of high-level thinking ability and construction of knowledge. But there are two viewpoints for constructing group member. The first is that heterogeneous group is benefit to the development of students and the second is that homogeneous group is benefit to the development of students. The purpose of this study is to find out if the group member construction of peer interaction influences creative problem finding ability (CPFA) and if this influence is related to students’ ability level and task difficulty. This study utilized a 2 (teaching materials or tasks of different difficulty: high and low) × 4 (group member construction: homogeneous group, heterogeneous group, voluntary group and control group) mixed design. Before the experiment, 148 primary school students of Grade 4 took part in the CPFA Test and then according to the CPFA score, they were matched into 4 equal groups and studied two materials with different difficulty and creative problems were proposed after the study. The results showed that: Compared with the independent learning, peer interaction learning could promote the development of CPFA more effectively; Group member construction had significant influences on the students’ CPFA; Material (or task) difficulty had significant influence on the students’ CPFA; there was significant interaction between group member construction and material (or task) difficulty. For the lower difficult material, homogeneous group was the best, voluntary group was better than control group and heterogeneous group was the worst. For the higher difficult material, voluntary group was the best, homogeneous group was better than heterogeneous group and control group was the worst. Lower-ability students had best performance in heterogeneous group; middle-ability students had best performance in homogeneous group; higher-ability students had best performance in voluntary group. Related Articles | Metrics

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Reanalysis of the Dual-Pathway Model of Collective Action: Evidences from Offline and Online Circumstances Hao CHEN 2013, 36(2): 424-428.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Collective action has been a renewed important issue in social psychology. There were many studies have found the basic roles of social identity and instrumental motives, on which included collective motive, social motive and reward motive, participating collective action(Tajfel & Turner, 1992; Klandermans, 1984, 1997), so Simon and his colleagues(1998) proposed the dual-pathway model of collective action, which tried to integrate those factors in the same model. A few scholars pointed out the two paths have correlativity somewhat, but no study has investigated the common mechanisms underlying the two paths. Moreover, former studies mainly focused on the collective actions occurring in the circumstances of western cultures, neglecting the horizontal one. Also, the target events of the past researches mostly were self’s interests related actual one. So the present study was aimed to explore the relationship between the dual-pathway model of collective action and the internal-external motives, which may be the underlying homogenous sources for the dual pathways, and the differences of the offline and online collective actions in the context of Chinese societal situation. In order to reach the aims, a questionnaire survey in the background of Diaoyu Island Event was carried out, before formal survey, a primary survey including 150 students from the target populate was made, and the result was used to modify the specific questions. In the formal survey, 431 undergraduates from different grades and majors took apart in the research in the unit of class (151 boys and 256 girls). A neutral background material of about 1000 words was edited on the news from Sep 7th to Oct 20th, the questionnaire included identity to nation, three types of the instrumental motives, and the internal-external motives, most of which were based on the former researches and were modified to the specific situation. The last part of the survey was some demographic data. The data collected was analyzed by SPSS13.0 and SEM. The result showed: firstly, the internal motive, national identity and collective motive as the main antecedent variables could have the direct and significant effects on both the offline and online collection action tendencies in the context of Chinese culture. And the two structural equation models accounted for the variances of 37 percents and 44 percents respectively. Secondly, the pathways of national identity and the pathway of the instrumental motives significantly influenced the action tendency simultaneously and relative independently, which verified the former researches and the theoretical hypotheses partly. And the dual pathways converged to the internal motive that revealed explicitly the essential properties of Chinese style collective action. Finally, the different roles and effects of external motives and the social motive reflected the differences of the offline and online collective actions circumstances, that extended the past theoretical models and research results concerning collective action. Those results proved that Chinese collective actions featured of characteristics of collectivism with the intrinsic motives. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The influence of the level of personal power on loss aversion 2013, 36(2): 429-433.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Power is generally de?ned as the ability to in?uence other people’s behavior, based on asymmetric control over valued resources. Recent theorizing and ?ndings suggest that power may indeed affect the decision making process. One of the most robust human biases in decision making is loss aversion, de?ned as the tendency for people to prefer avoiding losses over acquiring equivalent gains. That is, the anticipated value of a loss looms larger than the anticipated value of an objectively equivalent gain. Loss aversion has been associated with a number of important errors in decision making. Researchers have proved that cognitive perspective, motivation, emotion and characteristics of trade article can influence loss aversion. With Chinese college students as participants, this study is to explore the influence of power on loss aversion. In Experiment 1, the result of the questionnaire survey showed that the higher power participants performed less loss aversion compared with lower power participants. This finding provides support for the hypothesis that power could reduces the loss aversion. Based on experiment 1, experiment 2 further investigates the causes of loss aversion by breaking apart the components of loss aversion to determine how power may reduce it: via positive results (gain), negative results (loss), or both. Across two different measures of anticipated value, power reduced the anticipated value of negative results. However, power didn’t increase the anticipated value of positive results. We conclude that power has an influence on loss aversion. From a certain extent, the influence of the level of personal power on loss aversion just is an automatic, unconscious process, This also means that participants really not consider “should” pay less attention on negative results. On the contrary, participants would neglect about negative results unconsciously provided high power mindset is activated. As a result, motivation of avoid negative results will be reduced. Ultimately, Neglect about negative results is a fundamental component of high power mindset. This study explored the influence of the level of personal power on loss aversion, we can conclude that: (a) Loss aversion of high power individuals would likely be less than low power individuals; (b) Instead of over estimate value of gain, power reduce loss aversion by underestimate value of loss. In brief, high power individuals pay less attention on loss, and affect decision making process. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Integration Mechanisms of Compromise Effects 2013, 36(2): 434-439.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract The Adaptation Level Theory indicates that consumer's buying behavior is not only subject to the impact of product characteristics, but also are moderated and mediated by the purchasing situation and consumer cognition. Based on The Moderator-Mediator Model, this paper makes three times analysis about how condition factor and individual's cognitive factors affects on The Compromise Effect by using the Two Classification Logistics Regression Model. In this paper, by setting the information display format as condition factor, element of ELM and risk cognitive as cognitive factors, and use Two Classified Logistics regression model, mechanism of ELM and risk to The Compromise Effects are analyzed. We have following findings: First, information display format has main effects one The Compromise Effect; meanwhile one sided display format and non-display format have more The Compromise Effects than two sided format. Second, the information display format and the elaboration degree, the information display format and the risk perception level both have a significant interaction effect on The Compromise Effects. Third, the product involvement and knowledge of consumer has a negative relationship with The Compromise Effects, and risk perception has a positive relationship with The Compromise Effects. These results confirmed that ELM and risks have not only a single mechanism，but also have dual mechanism for The Compromise Effects under different information display formats. Therefore, these results still supported stability characteristics of The Compromise Effects. Bedsides we also found that the information display format and the information cognitive factor have moderated and mediated effects on The Compromise Effect. The especially , at the time of promotion and advertising effectiveness decline，effective using to potential information dissemination and hidden communication technology is becoming increasingly important. It is not only the challenge of marketing communications studies, but also the field which is that the companies need to constantly improve and try. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the Decision-making Process: Simulating “More Information” Options online Ning-ning CAO 2013, 36(2): 440-445.  Abstract ( )   PDF   It is a popular behavior that people can search for “more information” at will on the web. The “more information” option is one of the most important different characteristics between online and traditional setting. Two experiments were conducted to explore the possible effects on the information processing process when the options of “more information” are provided. Information Display Board (IDB) technique of process tracing research was applied in two experiments. There were 4 improvements to the IDB in this study:1.Subjects could respond consecutively along with more options for “more information”; 2.Two new dependent indexes were defined to IDB: the redundancy rate and repeat rate; 3. In some former domestic IDB design, the cells no longer shut down once they were clicked open, then in this study the cells would be closed as soon as new cells were clicked open. 4. Recorded the number of clicks and click-time of each cell in each board. Subjects were required to make purchase decisions from several USB flash disks and PPT wireless presenters presented on the IDB. The tasks were designed on the computer by the VB software. In Experiment 1, the option of “more information” was presented on one group of the information boards, then was not presented on the other group. Each subject completed two groups of information boards. Six dependent indexes were contrasted between the two groups. 68 undergraduates and graduates in shanghai completed Experiment 1. The results showed:1. over half of subjects chose to see more information; 2. the search time and depth reduced significantly when they had the choice for more information; 3. there was significant interaction between “whether can choose for more information or not” and the product type on the depth of search. Subjects who chose “more information” in Experiment 1 needed continue to complete the Experiment 2. The original board (stage 1, 4×7 matrix) in Experiment 1 would add either more products or more properties of products according to subjects’ choice. The new boards were formed (stage 2, 4×14 matrix or 8×7 matrix) in which subjects also could make decision immediately or choose to see more information, forming the ultimate boards (stage 3, 8×14 matrix). Subject must make the final decision on the ultimate board. 64 subjects completed Experiment 2. Choice behaviors were recorded separately in the three stages. The effects of search stage, product type, and choice route(4×7to4×14to8×14 or 4×7to8×7to8×14 ) on dependent indexes were analysed by MANOVA in SPSS. The results showed: 1.over 50% subjects demanded more information in each stage. 2. the average of repeat rate was about 32%; 3.search stage had main effect on number of clicks, time of search, depth of search, compensation index, and redundancy rate;4. there was significant interaction between search stage and choose route on variability of search. These results suggest that the information processing processes would be more selective when more information can be available. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of the Social Value Orientation and Feedback Formats on Decision Behavior in the Dynamic Public Goods Dilemma Li-Zhou HE Ran BIAN Hong-Sheng CHE 2013, 36(2): 446-452.  Abstract ( )   PDF   A public good (PG) is a commodity or service made available to all members of a group, and its provision depends on the voluntary contribution of its members. Once provided, all members in the group can enjoy the benefits of the PG, regardless of whether they contributed or not. Hence, there is a temptation to “free-ride” in the hope that others will contribute. Considered the influence of both individual factors and situational factors, this study focuses on social value orientation and feedback formats. Specifically, we hypothesized that the social value orientation and feedback formats both had significantly influence on participants’ cooperative behavior and that there would be significant interaction between the two variables. In this study, a public good dilemma (PGD) experiment consisted of 20 rounds of PGD games was conducted to test the hypotheses with a 3 (feedback formats)×2(social value orientation) between-subjects design, where participants needed to make decisions about whether to put their “money” in the group account or their individual accounts each round. The results show: (1) The main effect of social value orientation is significant on the decision behavior of the decision maker in repeated public goods dilemma games. Compared with non-cooperative people, cooperative people are much more inclined to cooperate. (2) The main effect of feedback formats is not significant. (3) The interaction between social value orientation and feedback formats is significant. The cooperation behavior of non-cooperative people is significantly affected by feedback formats, but cooperative people behave consistently no matter what format of feedback they receive. (4) Compared with the non-feedback condition, participants under group feedback condition are more likely to cooperate, while participants under individual feedback condition are inclined to cooperate less. The dynamic adaptive changes resulted from feedback, however, make the relationship of the factors in the experiments more complicated. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Implicit Effect of Optimistic Bias 2013, 36(2): 453-457.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Optimistic bias means people have a tendency to think that positive evens are more likely to happen to themselves and negative events are more likely to happen to other people. This research used the method of the Implicit Association Test to explore the implicit effect of optimistic bias. The subjects consisted of 60 college students. The data of IAT indicated that the mean reaction time in compatible test is shorter than one in incomaptible test signifcantly (t=-8.06, p<0.000), which means that participant tended to associate self with positive events and associate others with negative events. To explore further, we transformed the difference of reaction time between incompatible test and compatible test into D score as the indicator of implicit effect of optimistic bias. The mean D score is 0.47, One-Sample T Test showed that D score was above 0 (t=10.226，p<0.001),which suggested that there was significant implicit optimistic bias. However, there was no siginificant difference between sex although D score of female was less than male’s. Related Articles | Metrics

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Optimistic and Pessimistic Bias about General Life Events and Accidents among Chinese University Students: Direct Versus Indirect Measures 2013, 36(2): 458-462.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Optimistic bias means people tend to consider that they are more likely to experience positive events and less likely to experience negative events. Pessimistic bias, in contrast, means people think that they are less likely to experience positive events but more likely to experience negative events. There are two methods to measure optimistic and pessimistic bias: direct measure (participants make direct comparisons) and indirect measure (participants make indirect comparisons). The current study explored optimistic and pessimistic bias about general life events and accidents in university students, and tested whether the measurement method would influence the results. 273 university students were invited to complete a self designed questionnaire that included 7 negative life events, 7 positive life events, 6 accidents and 6 keeping safe in accidents. 132 of them made direct comparisons, the other 141 ones made indirect comparisons. The results showed that: (1) In both direct comparisons and indirect comparisons, participants expected that negative life events and accidents were more likely to occur to others than to themselves (optimistic bias) and keeping safe in accidents were more likely to occur to others than to themselves (pessimistic bias). However, they showed optimistic bias about positive life events in direct comparisons but pessimistic bias in indirect comparisons. (2) In both two methods, participants displayed optimistic bias about accidents much stronger than about negative life events. However, there was significant difference between the bias about positive life events and keeping safe in accidents when using the direct measure, but no difference in the indirect measure. (3) In direct comparisons, participants had stronger optimistic bias about infrequent/negative events but pessimistic bias about infrequent/positive events. However, these relationships were not significant in indirect comparisons. Although the indirect comparison was proved to be more accurate in measuring optimistic and pessimistic bias, the direct comparison had been shown could predict behaviors and affective outcomes more effectively. These results suggested that the choice of measurement method should base on the research purposes. Related Articles | Metrics

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Spatial Ability Tests and Their Applications 2013, 36(2): 463-468.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Individual differences of spatial ability has been attracted great attention from researchers in the spatial ability field. Previous reseachers concentrated their efforts on age, gender and strategies used in spatial tasks to explain the individual differences showed in spatial ability tests. There is a trend of transition from 2 D to 3 D in the development of spatial ability tests. As the traditional 2D test of spatial ability, the Mental Rotate Test (MRT) has been revised to explore the individual differences. MRT 0-4 and paired MRT are revised first to control the different risks preference between male and female, and second to find out the effect of different time limitation during tests by two methods. The former use an implicit way, while the latter use an explicit way. MRT A/D are revised to test whether the horizontal MRT is better than the vertical MRT and whether male will do better than female in vertical MRT. From several researches, we have come to the conclusion that gender differences showed in mental rotation tasks is constant and not largely rely on the testing formats. Although the different answering requirements may influence the self-esteem or strategies, the male always have the advantage when doing mental rotation tasks. With virtual reality technology, many spatial tests which are specific to different parts of spatial ability have also been devised for adults. D*star and SODT-R are two newly developed and widely used spatial orientation ability tests in spatial ability researches. They were used to probe the strategy preference. The results have been showed that people prefer to maintain the same strategy when tasks were changed from 2D to 3D and they will never switch their original strategies until there is some obvious disadvantage of using them. Compared with MRT, VWM and VPT are two 3D virtual spatial tests. They both need participants to combine rotation with orientation to complete the tasks. The results showed that the performance was hampered by age, that is to say, the more old the participant is, the lower score he/she will get. This age difference is universal among MRT, VWM and VPT. While, the gender difference is much more evident in 2D MRT than in 3D VPT. Studies also have indicated that MRT is related to the education level of participant, while 3D tests are related to the familiarity of the human-computer interface. In addition, some tests with specific purpose to study the development of spatial ability of children have come into existence. The map understanding test for children and picture rotation test are two popular tests using to explore the development of spatial ability. In accordance with the above reviews, further studies should try to define a complete and explicit theory frame both for children and for adults, lay more emphasize on behaviour study and physiological mechanism, clarify the relationship among all above tests and focus on the problem of strategies difference among or within individual. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Item Selection Strategies and Initial Items Selection Methods of CD_CAT 2013, 36(2): 469-474.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Computerized adaptive test for cognitive diagnosis(CD_CAT) is the product of the theory and method of cognitive diagnosis(CD) and Computerized adaptive test(CAT), and is a new developing modern measurement field. The research on the selection strategy in CAT is always a focus topic internationally. While there are few reports about the research on the selection strategy in CD_CAT, and there are less reports about the research on initial items selection strategy in CD_CAT. Methods: Using Monte Carlo simulation, this paper compared five selection strategies and 2 initial items selection strategies with HO-DINA model. Conclusions: Different initial items selection methods and different selection strategies can affect the accurate of diagnosis and the precision of ability estimation. Totally, To two initial items selection strategies, the T-matrix method suggested in this paper is better than the traditional stochastic method; To five selection strategies, SL_GDI method is the best; and among the pairwise of initial items selection strategies and selection strategies, the pair of T-matrix method and SL_GDI is the best match. Related Articles | Metrics

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Application of Association Rules Method in Psychological Measurement 2013, 36(2): 475-478.  Abstract ( )   PDF   When the correlation between variables is difficult to measure by correlation coefficient, the association rules can be used to examine the relationship between the variables. The possibility of application that association rules in psychological measurement is analyzed in theoretic, then using the Apriori algorithm for mining frequent item sets to analyze cross-cultural adaptation data of foreign students. Determined questionnaire topics by interview method, then determined the formal questionnaire by exploratory factor analysis. In accordance with the international students Language, translated the formal questionnaire into English, Japanese and Korean, then distributed these formal questionnaire to 11 provinces including 16 universities, eventually obtained 651 valid questionnaires. The formal questionnaire is divided into two parts: adaptation influencing factors and adaptation level, in which adaptation influencing factors including demographic factors, social and cultural influencing factors, the school environment influencing factors and personality psychological characteristics. The Cronbach consistency coefficients of each part of the formal questionnaire is greater than 0.7. Used the data mining software Weka to implement Apriori algorithm, and set the minimum support "minsup" to 0.2, while the lowest confidence level not less than 0.6, then extracted information, and used the lift rate to evaluate the rules. Compare the results between association rules, Pearson correlation and Spearman relevant, founding that using the association rules can be more simple and effective to get the rules between variables. The results show that association rules can gain the support and confidence of each level of the variables; it can deduce the rules between the multivariate; it is very effective for dealing with the correlation in non-linear multi-variable and multi-categorical variables. This is the first time for introducing association rules method to psychological measurement; it is a very useful method for analyzing the relationship between the data. Related Articles | Metrics

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Improving Reliability of New HSK Writing Test: A Generalizability Theory’s Approach 2013, 36(2): 479-483.  Abstract ( )   PDF   New HSK is the official Chinese proficiency test for speakers of other languages, which is administered by China’s Hanban (i.e. National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language). It was first launched in 2010, and held five times annually. Being a rather new test, research and development focusing on an improvement in the test’s quality is essential. Writing test scores of the New HSK, similar to those of any other language proficiency tests, are most vulnerable to reliability criticism. The study collected writing samples (n=52) from two sets of mock tests of the writing part of the New HSK, level 5. Data analysis was performed from the perspective of Generalizability Theory using Genova and mGenova software. Variance components were estimated for possible influencing effects of item, raters, rating speed, and their interactions. Dependability coefficient (Phi) was estimated for current test settings. Moreover, D studies with various rating patterns were conducted to explore approaches promoting the Phi coefficient. Major findings are: (a) According to current allocation of quantity for each item type, the descending order of the Phi coefficient for each item type is: writing based on keywords given, writing based on the given photo, ordering of the inner-sentence components; (b) For the Phi coefficient to be at least 0.8 for each item type, ordering items needs to increase from 8 items to 20 while the other two need to increase one item each; (c) If item quantities are increased as specified in b, then, the ordering items needs only one rater, writing based on keywords needs two, and writing based on photo needs three. However, if writing based on photo has three items, two raters will be enough to serve the need of keeping Phi coefficient as least 0.8; (d) With current allocation of item quantities for each item type, if calculation of the comprehensive score of writing uses weight proportional to the raw scores, then the Phi coefficient for the writing test could marginally reach the level of 0.8. But the study explored various approaches reaching a Phi coefficient at least 0.85 with relatively lower costs (for details, please refer to section 3.2.2 of this paper). For such estimations, the analysis applied solver functions of Microsoft Excel. (e) The study did not find effect of rating speed significant. However, this conclusion was limited to the two different speeds investigated by this study: a speed that each individual rater feels comfortable, and a speed that raters feel a little pushy but still have confidence about the rating quality under that speed. Furthermore, more evidence is needed to support such a conclusion, especially real data from professional raters. The study suggested to investigate effect of rating speeds on generalizability of writing test scores with more rigorous designs and more mature data collection techniques, and called for more attention to reliability issues of writing tests. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Use Rasch Model to Test and Analyze Children’s School Readiness Status 2013, 36(2): 484-488.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As an important task of early childhood education, getting every child prepared for school is increasingly emphasized by governments, stack-holders and parents in recent years. Against this background, researchers paid more attention to children’s school-readiness. In this line of studies, it is essential to accurately assess children’s school-readiness status. Using Classic Testing Theory (CTT), children’s scores of each item are added together to get a total raw score for each individual. The reliability, validity and discrimination of the test are then analyzed based on these raw scores. This method meets challenges in school-readiness testing. First, the difficulty of the test and the ability of children are dependent on each other so that one cannot gain objective and independent estimates of children’s abilities and difficulty of test as well. Second, school-readiness tests tend to have complex errors due to young children’s low developmental level and lack of examination skills. However, it is hard to decompose and analyze errors using Classic Testing Theory. Third, Classic Testing Theory takes raw score as equal interval variable while it’s merely ordinal variable in essence. The Rasch model on the other hand, can solve these problems well. The recent study aims to use Rasch model in developing and analyzing a math school-readiness to investigate its effectiveness and superiorities in school-readiness testing. The study developed a test containing 13 items and used it to test 150 children (mean age=6.6 years, 89 males). Using Rasch Model, the study analyzes the results and examines the reliability of the test and model fit of each item. The study also investigates the items and their categories and subsequently modifies the original test. The final version has an individual separation reliability of .70. All except one item have acceptable model fit indices, i.e., mean square of both infit and outfit between .7 to 1.3, and t statistics between -2 to 2. Most items’ difficulty is less than 1, indicating that the test is relatively easy for participants. However, this is appropriate for a school readiness test because it aims at testing how well is each child prepared for going to learn in primary school. Normally, most children should be well prepared. The Rasch score for each participant is then calculated and is found to be significantly correlated with participants’ age (r=.16, p<.05) and socio-economic status(r=.47, p<.01). The superiorities of using Rasch Model in testing school-readiness status are also discussed. In general, Rasch Model provides more effective methods that facilitate item diagnosing and also helps generate more reliable scores for subsequent analyses compared to Classical Test Theory. Related Articles | Metrics

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Structure and Functions of Industriousness of Yogacara Buddhism: Exemplified by Effects on Subjective Well-being 2013, 36(2): 489-495.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Since its foundation, Western psychology is characterized by its drawbacks of attending to one aspect and losing sight of other ones. For instance, Skinner’s radical behaviorism investigated behavior, but neither studied consciousness, nor studied unconsciousness. Freud's psychoanalysis eventually studied unconsciousness, but exaggerated functions of unconsciousness, and belittled roles of consciousness, moreover, they attended to the evil elements in the unconsciousness whereas neglected the good ones in it. The same is true with such schools as Gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology, all of them had drawbacks of attending to one aspect and losing sight of other ones. Unlike Western psychology, Yogacara Buddhism or vij?apti-matra philosophy studied not only behavior, but also consciousness and unconsciousness. Yogacara Buddhism is the most precise one in Buddhist schools. As a starting point, Yogacara Buddhism divided the mental structure into two classes: kings of mind and subordinates of mind. Just as the terms implied, similar to the kings of the kingdoms, kings of mind play the ruling roles; like the ministers of the kingdoms, subordinates of mind play the subsidiary roles. Kings of mind include visual cognition, auditory cognition, olfactory cognition, gustatory cognition, tactual cognition, cognition ⅵ (manovijnanam）, cognition ⅶ (saptamvijnanam) and cognition ⅷ (alayavijnanam). Subordinates of mind includes fifty-one members grouped into six families. The former five cognitions have covered perceptions in psychology; cognition ⅵ has covered such concepts as self-esteem, self-concept, self-consciousness, self-efficacy, self-regulation, meta-cognition in psychology; cognition ⅷ has covered the unconsciousness in psychology. However, it should be noted that the unconsciousness in psychology is just a tiny portion of cognition ⅷ, rather than its whole portion. As a matter of fact, cognition ⅷ has even covered such concepts as genetic genes, biological bases, schemes. Such psychological concepts as self-esteem are just a tiny portion of cognition ⅶ. Perceptions or consciousness in psychology are far from the whole portion of former five cognitions or cognition ⅵ. Obviously, Yogacara Buddhism is characterized with giving simultaneous consideration to genetic genes, biological bases, behavior, consciousness and unconsciousness, and it must be a precious reference for Western psychology to overcome its drawbacks of attending to one aspect and losing sight of other ones. For this reason, authors of this paper advanced the project for integration of Yogacara Buddhism with psychology. Many books or journal articles have been published on psychology of Buddhism which includes psychology of Yogacara Buddhism, however, all of them were based on speculative methodology rather than empirical methodology. Authors of this paper are supposed to employ empirical methodology in their project for integration of Yogacara Buddhism with psychology. Yogacara Buddhism is characterized with extensive knowledge and profound scholarship, the project for integration of Yogacara Buddhism with psychology should be a huge and complex one. It is impossible for one or several papers to complete the whole project. The main objectives of current studies are selecting industriousness concept, one of fifty-one members from subordinates of mind, as a starting-point, employing 588 high school students as subjects, adopting the Industriousness in Vijnapti-matra Questionnaire, the Satisfaction With Life Scale, and the Scale of Positive and Negative Experience as instruments, investigating structure of industriousness as first step, then investigating functions of industriousness, exemplified by its effects on subjective well-being. The following results were obtained: (1) The structure of Industriousness consists of seven factors; (2) Industriousness with non-inferiority and Industriousness in armour were largest positive predictors for satisfaction with life and positive affect; (3) Industriousness in armour and Industriousness with more actions were weak negative predictors for negative affect. Current studies explored the structure and functions of Industriousness with empirical methodology, and they are innovative trials of empirical studies on psychology of Yogacara Buddhism and psychology of Buddhism as a whole, and they should generate positive effects on promoting integration of Yogacara Buddhism with psychology, on constructing psychology with Chinese features, on exporting Chinese psychology to international community. Related Articles | Metrics

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The System info of Situation Interaction: Dialectical Psychology and Interbehavioral Psychology 2013, 36(2): 496-500.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract So far the development of psychology, the theoretical system is very complicated. Since the first psychological theory in the true sense, was named content psychology by Wundt which study experience content and combination rule to the functional psychology which opposite to the former; From the behaviorism psychology which is separated from consciousness and named “non-brains psychology” to the humanism psychology which put to explores the human positive potential and the value as own duty; So that arrives again the cognition psychology which made the human cerebrum as the computer information processing. All theories once held the small space in the psychology short history, these theories were spying the most complex human mind on this word through kinds of angle, but the people discovered that all theories are by no means correct. In recent years, the dialectical psychology and the interbehavioral psychology gradually became to a quite influential psychology orientation for the construction of psychological theory and the methodology reform. They may induce together the system of situation interaction. It broken the present situation that traditional psychology only to pay attention to consciousness, the behavior and the psychic mechanism sole dimension, but thought that the psychology should pay attention to the significance between organism and situation. This research has carried on the detailed explanation to the dialectical psychology and the interactive behavior psychology's major point and the main supposition. Finally, the author as well as has carried on the elaboration that the influence and the enlightenment of this system info to modern psychology. It may indicate the direction for the future psychology development. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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Shyness: "Haixiu" or "Xiuqie"? ----Analysis Based on Concept and Etymology 2013, 36(2): 501-505.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Shyness is a common phenomenon in interpersonal communication. Appropriate shyness is a normal reaction. But excessive shyness can bring negative effect to the development of individuals, which may even do harm to the individual's physical and mental health. Western psychologists started the systematic study of shyness since the 1970s, while China began to pay attention to this psychological phenomenon in the end of 20th century. The study of shyness in China made some achievement in recent years. But there are differences and confusion on the translation of the basic terms of "shyness". Some scholars have translated it into "Haixiu", while others translated it into "Xiuqie". Which translation is more accurate? This is not only just a simple problem of translation, it also concerns the accurate grasp of the concept and the requirements of cultural equivalence in cross-cultural studies. This study intends to review the definition of shyness in western psychology field and etymologically compare the meanings of "Haixiu" and "Xiuqie" in Chinese language. In this way, the researcher plans to find the Chinese expression of shyness, which is conceptually equivalent to the concept of the "shyness " in Western Psychology. The present study reviewed the Western concept of "shyness" and analyzed etymologically the meanings of "Haixiu" and "Xiuqie" in Chinese language. Through literature review, the researcher found that Western scholars have many different definition and expression of shyness. But its key factors can be summarized as the following there aspects. Firstly, shyness is a subjective experience. It is the subjective experience of worry, tension generated in interpersonal interaction situation. Secondly, shyness is a kind of behavior expression. It is the behavior of self-restrain, silence or social avoidance. Thirdly, the subjective experience and behavior of shyness are limited in specific situations---interpersonal situations. As a result, they basically view shyness as the feeling of tense, anxious, and embarrassment as well as the behavior of social habitation and withdrawal when they are in personal interaction situations. With reference to Etymology, Word-Ocean Dictionary, Chinese Dictionary, Modern Chinese Dictionary, the researcher etymologically further analyzed "Haixiu" and "Xiuqie". The results shown that, in Chinese language, "Xiuqie" means "feel embarrassed in emotion and timid in action", while "Haixiu" means "feel embarrassed and uneasy ". Thus "Haixiu" only expressed the conscious aspect of "shyness", and it can not illustrate the behaviour withdrawal. "Xiuqie" expressed both the "Xiu"(feel embarrassed) and the "Qie" (social withdrawal) to social activities. The present study found that the translation of “Xiuqie” is closer to the meaning of "shyness". Thus "Xiuqie" realized conceptual equivalence to the concept of the "shyness ". Related Articles | Metrics

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Why is Judgment Inaccurate? Explanations from Evolutionary Psychology and Brain Science 2013, 36(2): 506-509.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As it is full of inaccuracy in the world, people are required to make judgment under every condition. Accurate judgments could help people have a better understanding of themselves and the environment or their competitors, so that people could make wise choices or decisions. However, lots of researches found human judgments are inaccurate. Furthermore, people nearly have no sober awareness of this phenomenon. Studies from different disciplines attempt to explain this phenomenon. Among these explanations, the viewpoints from Evolutionary Psychology and Brain Science were most intriguing and original. Theoretical explanation from Evolutionary Psychology focused on the evolutional adaptability of inaccurate judgments in endless natural selection history, whereas the findings in Brain Science revealed the neurobiological basis corresponding to inaccurate judgments. Evolutionary Psychologists argued that many “misbelieves” are not accidental deviation or evolutionary design limitations, and that the reason why these “misbelieves” can be preserved is that they reduce the survival cost of humans and make individuals have more disposable resources or promote their physical and mental health, which would help humans meet the adaptive requirement of natural selection. For example, overestimation of oneself could make individuals more confident and more attractive in interpersonal relationships and group systems, thus they would possess more opportunities to take on the role and also get more trust of others around. Individuals like this kind would show evident advantages in the union, the status of competition, mate selection and other social activities. According to the error management theory of evolutionary psychology, there exists "deception" in the person's thoughts and actions is system error rather than random, and this error subconsciously make the most advantageous to the individual in the face of the uncertain situation choices, so that if a patient has "positive illusion", this would enable him to avoid falling into despair, and on the contrary, his health would be in a positive state as expected. One recent empirical research in Evolutionary Psychology used mathematical models to prove the advantages of "overconfidence" in context of competition for resources and agent-based model also confirmed that such a biased judgment strategy is effective in the war conflict. Taking advantage of technologies such as fMRI, ERP and TMS, Brain Science researchers found that part of the region and the structure in prefrontal cortex correspond to the inaccurate judgment, based on the results of experiments on normal and brain injury patients which involved perceptional, memorial judgments. For example, individuals’ self excessive judgment significantly reduced when applying TMS in the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) of them; fMRI study found that the activities of the activities in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) enhanced especially when subjective judgment and objective results match. Future research should pay attention to how to carry out researches on inaccurate judgments from evolutional developmental perspective and how to achieve clinical application of cognitive neuroscience findings in order to improve judgments. Related Articles | Metrics