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The effect of presenting mode of different features on the acquisition of rule-based and similarity-based knowledge in category learning 2018, 41(5): 1031-1038.  Abstract ( )   PDF (6884KB) ( )   The present study was aimed to explore the effect of presenting mode of different features on the acquisition of rule-based and similarity-based knowledge in category learning. There are two prominent opposing approaches on what is acquired in category learning: the rule-based approach assumes that the optimal strategy of categorization is easy to verbalize and the category is learned via hypothesis testing, whereas the similarity-based approach assumes that the optimal strategy of categorization is not easy to verbalize and the category is learned through comparing the similarity of the stimulus to the prototype. It was found that the acquisition of rule-based and similarity-based knowledge in category learning was affected by the factors such as the amount of training, working memory, and category structures. Interestingly, recently, it has been found that participants performed better in the auditory condition than in the visual condition in the rule-based task, but participants performed better in the visual condition than in the auditory condition in the information-integration task. Thus, we expected that the mode in which the features were presented might influence the acquisition of rule-based features and similarity-based features in category learning. To address this issue, a modified prototype distortion task was adopted, in which the category member included one rule-based feature and ten similarity-based features. In the auditory-visual condition, the similarity-based features were from visual stimuli that varied along 10 binary dimensions, while the rule-based feature was from auditory stimuli that different in pitch. In the visual-visual condition, the similarity-based features were identical to the auditory-visual condition, while the rule-based feature was defined by the gray scale of the background of the visual stimulus. In the visual-auditory condition, the rule-based feature was identical to the visual-visual condition, while the similarity-based features were from auditory stimuli that varied along 10 binary dimensions. In the training phase, participates were asked to indicate which category the stimulus belongs to, and then the feedback of the correctness was provided after their response. Each block included 20 trials, and there were eight blocks, for a total of 160 trials. To examine whether people learned the similarity-based or rule-based features, we adopted the ambiguous stimuli that could be classified to different categories on the basis of similarity-based or rule-based features in the testing phase. There were 40 ambiguous stimuli and 20 trained stimuli in the testing phase. The results showed that for all participants in the three conditions the accuracy gradually increased with training, indicating all of them acquired some knowledge about the category. Interestingly, the accuracy was significantly higher for participants who categorized the ambiguous stimuli on the basis of the rule-based feature, i.e., acquired the rule-based features, than those who categorized the ambiguous stimuli on the basis of the similarity-based features, i.e., acquired the similarity-based features, suggesting that the performance for rule-based learning is superior to the similarity-based learning. More importantly, the number of participants who acquired rule-based features was significantly more than that of those who acquired similarity-based features in the auditory-visual condition, but there were no significant differences in the visual-auditory and visual-visual condition. The results suggested the presenting mode of different features influenced the acquisition of rule-based features and similarity-based knowledge in category learning, and people tended to categorize stimuli on the basis of the rule-based feature when it was presented in the auditory modality. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Role of Verbal Coding and Verbal-Spatial Coding on Time-Space Association 2018, 41(5): 1069-1076.  Abstract ( )   PDF (651KB) ( )   Evidence for Spatial-Temporal associations of response codes (STEARC) effect reports faster reaction times to short/long durations with the left/right hand, respectively. The cognitive origin of the STEARC effect is on debates: the visuospatial account and the verbal account. According to visuospatial coding, time is mentally represented along a continuous left-to-right-oriented representational line with short/long durations located on the left/right side of the mental time line, respectively. With respect to verbal coding, time–space interactions would result from an association between the verbal categorical concepts “short” and “left” as well as “long” and “right”. To determine whether participants were biased towards verbal coding mechanisms as the SNARC effect that exists in number and space, in Experiment 1, using the similar task as that in Georges (2015), we not only instructed participants to respond to a certain verbal label irrespective of its physical side (verbal instruction condition), but also required them to respond to either the left or right physical response side regardless of the displayed verbal labels (spatial instruction condition).To dissociate the confound of both coding mechanisms (e.g., faster left-sided responses for short duration could result from an association either between the verbal concepts “short” and“left” or between short duration and the left side of physical space), we randomly varied the position of the verbal labels “Left” and “Right” to appear on the left or right physical response sides. We created verbal congruency, referring to the congruency between the magnitude of the presented duration and the verbal label of the participant’s response. The physical congruency refers to the congruency between the magnitude of the presented duration and the physical side of the participant’s response. Participants were instructed to respond to the verbal labels regardless of their physical side of appearance (e.g., click on the verbal labels “Left”/“Right” for small/large numbers, respectively) or respond on the left/right physical response side for short/long durations, respectively, regardless of the displayed verbal labels. Median RTs were subjected to 2× 2×2 repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) including instruction condition (verbal, spatial),physical congruency, and verbal congruency as within-subject factors. Another statistical approach is regression analysis. Two different types of STEARC effects–visuospatial SNARC effect and a verbal–spatial SNARC effect were calculated for each instruction condition. The result revealed the predominance of verbal coding under verbal task instructions. However, this pattern changed under spatial instruction condition, in which visuospatial STEARC effect disappeared. In order to further explore the role of response mode, in Experiment 2, we changed the verbal response into arrow direction (named as visual coding condition). The outcome demonstrates that spatial STEARC effect occurred in spatial instruction condition, and visual STEARC effect occurred in visual instruction condition. The result demonstrates the spatial code associated with time is context dependent. In conclusion, the predominance of verbal coding occurs under verbal task instructions. However, in the spatial instruction condition, both verbal and spatial coding mechanisms could be activated to cause the spatial STEARC effect disappeared. In visual instruction condition, STEARC effect was activated to the same as in spatial response mode. Hence, these ?ndings clearly indicate that the cognitive origin of time–space associations is context dependent. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Encoding Ways and the Characteristics of Lexicalized Fingerspelling on the Processing of Chinese Sign Language Word for Deaf Students 2018, 41(5): 1077-1083.  Abstract ( )   PDF (716KB) ( )   Sign language is the first language for the deaf, playing a significant role in their cognitive development and daily communication. Fingerspelling is an integral part of sign language, which possessed the characteristics of both sign language and verbal language, and be regarded as the bridge connecting these two different modes of language. At present, numerous research achievements from various perspectives have been made in regard with fingerspelling in English. However, few researches have been carried out when it turns to the Chinese fingerspelling; furthermore, most of the existed studies are mainly adopted the descriptive approaches as the major methodology, and little attention has been paid to further researches on the cognitive processing characteristics of lexical fingerspelling words. In this paper, participants were high middle schools students recruited from deaf schools, aged between 16-23 years old. All the experimental programs were designed by E-prime 2.0 Software. Two experiments (A1, A2) were carried out to explore the effects of encoding ways and the characteristics of lexicalized fingerspelling words on Chinese sign language words process of deaf students. A1: 2 (encoding ways: fingerspelling coding / phonological coding) X 2 (words types: lexicalized fingerspelling words / sign words) within-participants design was used to explore the characteristics of processing different kinds of sign language words. Further, we conducted A2 which consists of 2 (encoding ways: fingerspelling encoding / phonological encoding) × 2 (position of fingerspelling: front / back) × 2 (fingerspelling formation pattern: original / variant) with-participants design. The aim of A 2 was to further explore the encoding modes in processing fingerspelling words with different characteristics, such as position of fingerspelling and the fingerspelling formation pattern. The results are listed as follows :(1) The performance in fingerspelling encoding mode task was more accurate than that in phonological mode task for both types of words, and the respond time in fingerspelling encoding was shorter than in phonological encoding, indicating the preferred encoding mode of deaf students in processing sign language words was fingerspelling; (2) Significant difference due to the types of words was also obtained. Fingerspelling words had higher accuracy rate and shorter reaction time than sign words, showing the processing way among two types words(fingerspelling and sign )might be different for the deaf, and the fingerspelling probably plays an intermediary role in the encoding of sign language word;(3) The interaction effect between position and formation of fingerspelling was also significant, specifically, the processing speed for fingerspelling words with the phoneme in front was significantly faster than those in back; and the performance for fingerspelling words with original formation pattern was better than those with variant formation pattern. To sum up, for deaf students, fingerspelling does work in processing different types of sign language words, which is characterized by the position and formation of fingerspelling and the interaction effect between them. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Application of Adaptive Focus-Context Displays on the Teleoperation 2018, 41(5): 1055-1061.  Abstract ( )   PDF (916KB) ( )   Space manipulator teleoperation system is a complex system of human-computer interaction. The presentation of visual information during the interaction will affect the efficiency of the operator in the performance of the teleoperation. To improve the human performance of space teleoperation such as space station robotic arm operation task, it is an important technical method to improve the operators telepresence．In order to improve operating performance in the information display interface of telepresence, focus-context technology was studied by many researchers. However, the presentation of focus-context technology is static, and lacks of consideration of the operator's operating characteristics and needs. This study combines the focus-context technology and the adaptive technology. It applies the new technology to the teleoperation display interface, and examines the effectiveness of the adaptive focus-context display technology by comparing the teleoperation performance under different display conditions. The current study consists of two parts. The first one describes the features of the adaptive focus-context display technology. The display of the adaptive focus-context display technology could be changed dynamically according to the different adaptive algorithm, as shown in Fig. 2. The second part is an empirical experiment. Those tests were developed in V-REP PRO by Lua. All sessions were run on a 1280×768 20-inch resolution monitor. The operating handle used during the experiment was two PXN-2113 handles connected over USB. The experiment was a single factor between-subjects design with 5 levels (display type: adaptive focus-context display, single correction information display, single guidance information display, single constant background information display, and no background information display). The dependent variables were operation time, two types of operating efficiency and operator’s evaluation of NASA-TXL. The NASA-TXL is six aspects of evaluation: mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, performance, effort and frustration. Seventy-five right-handed adults participated in the study (40 females and 35 males), randomly assigned to the 5 levels of experiment. For each group, participants were asked to finish 6 times of space station robotic arm operation tasks with different displays’ conditions. After the space station robotic arm operation tasks, participants’ subjective evaluation was performed. All data were processed by SPSS 17.0. The mean and standard deviation of the five experiment types’ performance and satisfaction evaluation were shown in Table 2 to 3. The ANOVA results showed: 1) Compared with the other four display (single correction information display, single guidance information display, constant background information display, and no background information display), the adaptive focus-context display can more effectively improve the performance of participants(ps＜.05). 2) Compared with the other four display, the adaptive focus-context display shows no significant advantage in reducing the operational cognitive load(ps＞.05). The Research shows that the adaptive focus-context display technology can optimize the information display in the teleoperation interface and improve work performance. Related Articles | Metrics

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State Anxiety and Shifting Function: the Application of Attention Control Theory in the Group of Athletes Fan PENG Li-Wei ZHANG 2018, 41(5): 1090-1096.  Abstract ( )   PDF (941KB) ( )   In this study, there are three parallel experiments testing the assumption of anxiety interfering shifting function of ACT and trying to explore its applicability among athletes. These experiments used three different paradigms of More-Odd shifting task testing the shifting function in 2(state anxiety: high vs. low)×2(groups: athletes vs. college students) between group design, that show a consistent trend: for college students, the high state anxiety reduced the processing efficiency, increased subjective efforts but had little effect on the accuracy; for athletes, the high state anxiety had little effect on the processing efficiency and accuracy. Therefore we concluded that: assumption of state anxiety interfering shifting function of ACT was applicable for college students, but not applicable for athletes. Related Articles | Metrics

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Attentional Characteristics of High-Empathy People in Processing Emotional Stimuli and Evidence from Their Eye Movements 2018, 41(5): 1084-1089.  Abstract ( )   PDF (610KB) ( )   Empathy refers to the ability of an individual to understand and feel someone else’s affect ,which is vital for individual development and interpersonal harmony.Mind perception and mind reading are the two trends in the study of intersubjectivity in psychology.Moreover,empathy is an important embodiment of the perception of the mind.In order to understand and resonate to others' emotion,empathy individual mainly depends on two inputs:situational understanding system and emotional clues classification system. One can perceive other people’s inner feelings through others’ emotional clues (such as facial expression),and also can make inferences based on situations (such as emotional words)when such intuitive emotional clues are lacking.Although the studies of effect of empathy on emotional information processing generally use facial expressions as experiment stimuli,a few researches demonstrate that there are some different neural mechanisms in cognitive processing of faces and words.To our knowledge,however,it is not clear whether the attentional bias of words and facial expressions is consistent or not for high-empathy people.Does high-empathy individual tend to be more inclined to understand the emotions of others instead of just the classification and representation of emotional clues? Methods:This research combine the dot-probe paradigm and eye movement technology to investigate the specific components of attentional bias toward words and faces.55 subjects were screened and selected for the high-and low-empathy groups(29 people in the high-empathy group) based on the total scores obtained on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) questionnaire.The experiment was a 2(subject type:high-empathy,low-empathy)×2(experimental material:words,faces)×3(paired condition:negative-consistent,negative-inconsistent,neutral-neutral) mixed design.The experiment stimuli of words and faces was selected from Chinese Affective Words System and Chinese Face Affective Picture System respectively.According to previous studies,initial orienting of attention was measured as the time to first fixation;attention maintenance was measured by total fixation duration.Besides,subjects’ reaction time for judging the position of the probing point were recorded. Results:In the attention orienting phase,both groups of subjects had faster early-stage attention orienting toward emotional stimuli than toward neutral stimuli(a shorter time to first fixation),particularly toward sad faces;and high-empathy subjects directed their attention more quickly to the faces than the words.In the attention maintenance phase,the total fixation time of sad faces was longer than the total fixation time of negative words;an Independent-Samples T Test showed that high-empathy subjects had longer late-stage attention maintenance toward sad faces (a longer total fixation duration)than low-empathy subjects.There was no difference under different experiment paired conditions in reaction time. Conclusion:This study demonstrates that facial expressions is a more index than words and the high-empathy subjects show processing advantage in the attention orienting-maintenance modes toward sad faces，which provide an important empirical basis for interpersonal mind perception. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect of endogenous spatial attention on sound-induced flash illusion 2018, 41(5): 1039-1046.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1197KB) ( )   Sound-induced flash illusion is a typical auditory dominance phenomenon. This illusion can be divided as fission illusion (when a single brief visual flash is accompanied by two auditory beeps and participants report they perceived two flashes) and the fusion illusion (where a double flash is accompanied by a single auditory beep and participants report they perceived a single flash). Compared with fusion illusion, the effect size of fission illusion is larger and stronger. Prior studiesfound that endogenous attention couldinteract with multisensory integration. Furthermore, adirect evidence support that modal-based endogenous attention (selective attention vs. divided attention) influenced on sound-induced flash illusion, spatially for fission illusion. However, the relationship between endogenous spatial attention and sound-induced flash illusion is still uncertain. In addition, visual field is an important factor in visual processing, because there is a significant difference between upper and lower visual field in some tasks. Therefore, in the present study, we focused on the effect of endogenous spatial attention and visual field on sound-induced flash illusion. In experiment 1, we used a 2 (endogenous spatial attention: selective attention vs. divided attention) × 2(visual field: upper vs. lower) factorial design, and the factor of endogenous spatial attention was manipulated between blocks. The task for participants was to judge the number of flash that occurred in a certain place or any place. However, in experiment 1, even if the attention was manipulated by instruction, the flash would occur in upper or lower visual field randomly, so whether the uncertainty of the place that the flash occurredwas another influential factor in the paradigm? To exclude this possibility, we added an arrow, which could indicate the place that the flash would occur before the flash appearance in experiment 2. So experiment 2 was also a 2(arrow validity: valid vs. invalid) × 2(visual field: upper vs. lower) factorial design. The valid arrow directed upper or lower visual field in a trial, and invalid arrow directed upper and lower visual field at the same time. Moreover, all trials presented randomly. From the results of accuracy (ACC) in experiment 1, we found that fission illusion was more robust than fusion illusion, and endogenous spatial attention and visual field did not influence sound-induced flash illusion. However, they could contribute together to this illusion. Specifically, when attentiondivided, the illusion was larger in upper visual field than in lower visual field. Nevertheless, under selective attention condition, there was no difference between upper and lower field.In addition, the ACC of experiment 2 indicated the illusion influenced by visual field rather than endogenous spatial attention. Moreover, there was no significant interaction between endogenous spatial attention and visual field. In other words, the addition of the informative arrow contributed to the upper-lower asymmetry effect, and weakened the interaction between endogenous spatial attention and visual field. Taking the results of experiment 1 and 2 together, we suggest that the fission illusion is independent on endogenous spatial attention and visual field, but influenced by coefficient of the two factors when there is no arrow, which can indicate the place that flash occurs. However, the arrow can increase the upper visual field advantage in fission illusion, and decrease the interaction between endogenous spatial attention and visual field. Related Articles | Metrics

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Resting-state Functional Connectivity Analysis of Tibetan-Chinese Bilinguals’ Chinese Reading Comprehension 2018, 41(5): 1047-1054.  Abstract ( )   PDF (857KB) ( )   Resting-state functional connectivity (FC) studies have revealed that second language (L2) reading comprehension can be predicted by intrinsic functional organization (IFO) within language network. However, these studies select some specific seed regions in language network according to priori knowledge before FC analysis, which can result in some biased results and neglect of some important unpredictable findings. Additionally, most previous studies explore L2 reading comprehension largely taking reading as a global construct without considering the multidimensional structure of reading, thus little is known about the features of IFO related to subskills of reading ability in L2 learning. Therefore, the present study combines resting-state whole-brain functional connectivity density (FCD) with the FC analysis based on seed regions to investigate the characteristics of IFO associated with specific dimensions of L2 reading. Nineteen Tibetan-Chinese bilinguals were recruited in the present study and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were acquired in each participant. Then, the Chinese Character Reading Efficiency Test (CCRET) and the reading comprehension section of Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK) were used to evaluate the global level and two dimensions (literal comprehension and inferential comprehension) of L2 reading respectively. Next, a novel voxel-level whole-brain FCD analysis was applied to find the key brain regions associated with L2 reading. Furthermore, the FC between key brain regions and each voxel was computed by conducting seed-based FC analysis, and the correlation between each FC and two dimensions of Chinese reading conprehension was also evaluated respectively. The results showed that literal comprehension scores in L2 reading were not only significantly correlated with inferential comprehension scores but also higher than inferential comprehension scores. FCD analysis found that the three key brain regions including the left inferior frontal gyrus, right lingual gyrus and right precuneus had significant correlations with CCRET scores. Further seed-based FC analysis revealed that both literal comprehension scores and inferential comprehension scores were positively correlated with the FC between the left inferior frontal gyrus and left superior temporal gyrus as well as between the right lingual gyrus and right precentral gyrus. Moreover, inferential comprehension scores also showed positive correlations with the FC between the left inferior frontal gyrus and right parietal lobule. These findings indicate that different dimensions of L2 reading comprehension of Tibetan-Chinese bilinguals in L2 learning have significant correlations with FC in resting state, and some specific FC circuits are involved in the processing of inferential comprehension compared with the processing of literal comprehension in L2 reading. More generally, this study also suggests that different dimensions of L2 reading comprehension can be reflected by intrinsic functional organization, thus may provide important theoretical implications in our understanding of neural processing mechanisms for L2 reading. This study differentiates itself from previous research in that it chooses seed regions of FC analysis based on a data-driven approach by conducting correlation analysis between FCD and CCRET. In addition, the present study takes reading as a multidimensional structure rather than a global construct, investigating the characteristics of intrinsic brain functional organization related to different dimensions of reading comprehension (literal comprehension and inferential comprehension) in L2 learning. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of the Alignment of Emotional Motivational Intensity and Working Memory Task Demands on Self-Control Task 2018, 41(5): 1062-1068.  Abstract ( )   PDF (551KB) ( )   Previous studies found that emotions selectively influence cognitive process. When emotions tuned a cognitive process that matched task demands, representing a state of alignment, performance improved. Whereas when emotions tuned a cognitive process that mismatched task demands, representing a state of misalignment, performance declined. Although some studies revealed the influence of withdrawal-motivated and approach-motivated affect on verbal and spatial working memory (WM), but few studies explore the influence of the motivational dimension of withdrawal-motivated and approach-motivated affect on the alignment of emotion and cognition. We adopted the self-control depletion paradigm to explore the influence of the alignment of emotional motivational intensity and WM task demands on the self-control task. Combinations of low and high approach\ withdrawal motivated emotions and WM task demands were used to create the conditions of emotion–cognition alignment or misalignment. Self-control resources are utilized on the first task under the condition of emotion–cognition misalignment , performance will be impaired on a second task. Hypothesis 1 is, a demand for self-control will decline for the low approach-motivated positive emotion–verbal WM task aligned conditions, saving self-control resources and improving performance on the second task. Hypothesis2 is, a demand for self-control will decline for the low withdrawal-motivated negative emotion–spatial WM task aligned conditions, saving self-control resources and improving performance on the second task . In Experiment 1 and 2, 156 participants (Experiment 1,71 males; Experiment 2, 75 males) were enrolled in each experiment. Three films were employed in Experiment 1, of which two films induced high or low approach-motivated positive affect respectively, as well as onefilm induced neutral affect. In experiment 2, two films induced high or low withdrawal-motivated negative affect respectively, and one film induced neutral affect. After viewing one film, participants rated their feelings using a 9-point scale. Then they were assigned to accomplish a verbal or spatial 2-back WM task. For the verbal task, the letter was compared with the letter presented two trials back, whereas for the spatial task, the location of the letter was compared with the location of the letter presented two trials back. Following the WM task, participants completed a Stroop task. In all experiments, WM accuracy and the Stroop score were recorded. The Stroop score is computed by subtracting reaction time on congruent trials from reaction time on incongruent trials. The results showed that, either completed a verbal or a spatial WM task under the low approach-motivated positive affect or low withdrawal-motivated negative affect, respectively, WM accuracy was significantly higher than other conditions, but Stroop score was significantly lower than other conditions. These result indicated that completing either a verbal or a spatial WM task under the low approach-motivated positive affect or the low withdrawal-motivated negative affect, respectively, is the condition of emotion–cognition alignment. Under this condition self-control resources are saved and the performance on the self-control task is improved. Our results support the motivational dimension model of affect. Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-disclosure on Social Networking Sites and Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction: A Moderated Mediation Model 2018, 41(5): 1103-1109.  Abstract ( )   PDF (641KB) ( )   Self-disclosure is defined as the revealing of personal information to another person. With the development of modern communication technology, self-disclosure has gradually spread to online communications, especially in the platform of social networking sites (SNS). In SNS, self- disclosure could be displayed in various ways, such as posting or updating status, uploading photos, issuing a log and making comments. As a ubiquitous behavior in the use of SNS, self- disclosure on SNS is now in the focus of relevant research with its impact on adolescents’ psychological and social adaptation. In addition, with the rise of positive psychology, life satisfaction, a key component in well-being, gradually becomes a typical indicator of psychological and social adaptations. Therefore, this study attempted to explore the relationship between self-disclosure on SNS and adolescents’ life satisfaction, as well as the potential mechanisms underlying this relation. From the perspective of positive psychology, self-disclosure contributes to better physical and mental health (e.g., life satisfaction). Some empirical studies have also indicated that self-disclosure on SNS has a significantly positive effect on life satisfaction, and friendship quality might play an important role in this relation. In adolescence, peer relationships (e.g., friendship quality) play an increasingly important role in adolescents’ development and adaption, resulting from the transformation of relative importance of parents-adolescents relationships and peel relationships. Meanwhile, adolescents’ friendship quality is also influenced by their self-disclosure on SNS. As a result of a relatively high degree of overlapping between SNS friends and offline friends, adolescents could tell their friends about their current situation and status via SNS according to Connecting Developmental Constructions and Enhancement Hypothesis. To sum up, self-disclosure on SNS can predict adolescents’ life satisfaction through friendship quality. What’s more, the amount of relationship between self-disclosure on SNS and friendship quality depends on the expansively social tendency, according to the conditionality of Enhancement Hypothesis. Expansively social tendency is a newly-created variable, referring to the degree of how much SNS was used to communicate with offline friends. To conclude, the present study constructed a moderated mediation model exploring the relationship among self-disclosure on SNS, friendship quality, expansively social tendency and life satisfaction. A sample of 1556 students from 4 middle schools was recruited in the study to complete the self-report questionnaires. Four questionnaires were used in the study: questionnaire of self-disclosure on SNS, SNS use, friendship quality and life satisfaction. The results indicated that: (1) Self-disclosure on SNS was positively correlated with adolescents’ quality friendship and life satisfaction, while all of them were not correlated with expansive social tendency; (2) Friendship quality partially mediated the effect of self-disclosure on SNS on adolescents’ life satisfaction. Self-disclosure not only directly influenced life satisfaction of adolescents, but also, through influencing friendship quality, ultimately influenced adolescents’ life satisfaction. (3) Expansively social tendency moderated the mediation effect of quality of friendship on the relationship between self-disclosure on SNS and life satisfaction. This mediation effect was only found in individuals with high expansively social tendency, but not in less those with low expansively social tendency. The study revealed the complex mechanism between self-disclosure on SNS and adolescents’ life satisfaction. Self-disclosure on SNS influenced adolescents’ life satisfaction through friendship quality, and the mediation effect of friendship quality was influenced by expansively social tendency. Related Articles | Metrics

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Shyness and Social Adjustment among Chinese Preschoolers: the Moderating Role of Student-Teacher Relationship 2018, 41(5): 1130-1137.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1024KB) ( )   Shyness is characterized by wariness and anxiety when faced with novel social interactions and the perception of social evaluation (Coplan & Armer, 2007). Although shy children may desire to initiate social contact with others (i.e., social approach motivation), this approach motivation is inhibited by social fear and anxiety (i.e., social avoidance motivation) (Coplan, Prakash, O’Neil, & Armer, 2004). Over the last 20 years. China has experienced large-scale societal reforms, some Western cultural values such as initiative, self-expression, and assertiveness are becoming more adaptive in urban areas of China. Shy children in recent years showed maladjustment, including internalizing problem (loneliness, anxiety, depressive symptoms), peer difficulties (peer rejection, victimization), low quality student-teacher relationship and poor academic achievement. However, not all shy children suffer adjustment difficulties. Researchers have explored factors ameliorating or exacerbating the maladjustment between shyness and social adjustment. Relationships with teachers play a critical role in children’s socio-emotional development, particularly in early childhood. Negative relationship with teachers were associated with children negative outcomes. To our knowledge, there is little previous studies of shyness and student-teacher relationship, especially among Chinese preschoolers. The goal of the current study was to examine the student-teacher relationship between shyness and indices of adjustment (i.e., interpersonal skills, verbal assertion, internalizing problems, asocial behavior, and excluded by peers). Participants were 360 children (200 boys, 55.6%, Mage = 4.73，SD = .57) from two public kindergartens, Shanghai. Mothers completed Child Social Preference Scale (CSPS; Coplan et al., 2004), of particular interest for the present study was the subscale of shyness (11 items, α = .87). One and a half years later, teachers rated Student-teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; Pianta & Steinberg, 1992), the STRS consists of 28 items and has been shown to contain the following three factors: Closeness (11 items, α = .84), Conflict (12 items, α = .81), and Dependency (5 items, α = .71). Teachers also completed the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS; Gresham & Elliott, 1990), of particular interest for the present study was the subscale of Interpersonal skills (11 items, α = .92), Verbal assertion (7 items, α = .87), and Internalizing problems (4 items, α = .79). Teachers finally completed the Child Behavior Scale (CBS; Ladd & Profilet, 1996), of particular interest for the present study was the subscale of Asocial with peers (6 items, α = .85), and Excluded by peers (7 items, α = .85) Among the results, shyness and negative student-teacher relationship were related to child social adjustment difficulties (i.e, internalizing problem, asocial behavior, and excluded by peers), whereas close student-teacher relationship were associated with indices of positive outcomes (interpersonal skills, verbal assertion). However, the research further explored the moderating role of student-teacher relationship between shyness and outcomes. The results indicated conflict student-teacher relationship played a moderating role between shyness and interpersonal skills, verbal assertion, internalizing problem, asocial behavior and exclude by peers. Dependent student-teacher relationship moderated the association between shyness and asocial behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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Development of the SNARC effect in the ethnic minority children and adolescents of Guizhou 2018, 41(5): 1138-1144.  Abstract ( )   PDF (847KB) ( )   The SNARC effect reflected the fact that the participants’ reaction times(RTs) to small numbers were faster with left than right hand, whereas the converse for large numbers. Previous research suggested that the initial age of children show the SNARC effect is inconsistent，the mathematics education difference might be one of the reasons. In addition, previous studies focused on subjects in well-developed areas of education. But for China, there were regional differences in educational development. Especially in Guizhou, the education base and mathematics education of ethnic minority were far behind the developed areas. The SNARC effect of minority subjects in these areas should have different characteristics. Therefore, our study used parity decision task to test the developmental pattern of the SNARC effect of ethnic children and adolescents in Guizhou. In current research, 243 ethnic students of Guizhou were asked to judge parity between 8 Arabic numerals from 1 to 9 (except 5). To examine the SNARC effect, a repeated-measures ANOVA was conducted with response hand (left vs. right) and number size (1–4 as “small” vs. 6–9 as “large”) for each age group. And then, the regression method was used to further investigate the SNARC effect. We subtracted RTs or accuracy of the left-hand responses from those of the right-hand responses and regressed those differences on the magnitude of the numbers and obtained an unstandardized regression coef?cient for each participant. One-sample t test was used to test the significance of the mean unstandardized regression coef?cient of each group; Besides, to understand age differences, the data was analyzed in two ways: (1) The ANOVA approach was used to examine the three-way interaction (age by hand by number size); (2) One way ANOVA approach was used to examine whether there are grade differences in unstandardized regression coefficient. The results showed: (1) On the reaction times: 1) The interaction between number size and hand was significant for all groups (excluding grade 2);2) The significant T values which suggested a significant SNARC effect were existed in all stages of grade 3 to university;3) The three-way interaction was not significant, and the unstandardized regression coefficients of each grade group were also no significant difference; (2) On the accuracy: 1) The interaction between number size and hand was significant in grade 3 to grade 6. But, the significant T values were existed in grade 3 to grade 5，it suggests that the SNARC effect on accuracy were indeed existed in these three grades. 2) The three-way interaction was not significant, and the unstandardized regression coefficients of grade 3 to grade 5 were also no significant difference. These findings suggested that the ethnic children could exhibit SNARC effect from grade 3 which was later than urban children in developed areas. The size of the SNARC effect did not change with ages. Besides, grade 3 and grade 5 showed the same size SNARC effect on accuracy, the accuracy was too low (grade 2) or too high (Junior high school to University) to show the SNARC effect. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Evidence Order and Testimony’s Confidence on 5-Year Children’s Causal Inference 2018, 41(5): 1110-1116.  Abstract ( )   PDF (496KB) ( )   Until recently, the psychological mechanism of the interaction of the three kinds of information(Statistical information, experimental results, and testimonies) in children's scientific thinking has not been elucidated (Sobel & Kushnir, 2013). In this study, research paradigm from Bridgers et al(2016) was used in two experiments to explore the influence of order of two kinds of evidence: adult’s testimony and adult’s experiment, on 5-year-old children’s causal inference. children's perception of the level of testimony’s confidence also was analyzed. Experiment 1 adopted a 2×2 completely randomized experiment design, the independent variable was the informant’s self-confidence (two levels: self-confidence, not-confidence) and the order of evidence (two levels: testimony prior to experiment, experiment prior to testimony), the dependent variable was the frequency of children’s choice of candidate cause. Both testimony and experiment were given by an adult female in a laptop, in respective. 132 preschool children(77 boys and 55 girls, mean age 68.2 months) took part in experiment 1. The results showed that there were more children choice cause according to testimony in condition that experiment prior to testimony, and according to experiment in condition that testimony prior to experiment, resulting in a recency effect. children was not sensitive to the testimony’s confidence and informant’s awareness. Experiment 1 found that children was not sensitive to the testimony’s confidence, which might be unaware of the information of testimony’s confidence. Experiment 2 adopted the same experiment design of experiment 1, but appended a confidence question to the end of testimony. 127 preschool children(70 boys and 57 girls, mean age 69.3 months) took part in experiment 2. The results showed that there were more children in condition of confidence testimony than in condition of not-confidence testimony choice cause according to testimony, but the effect of evidence order were removed. It seemed that 5-year-old children gave the same weight to adult’s testimony and experiment, and the change of evidence order brought a recency effect on children’s causal inference, but recency effect would been eliminate by appending a confidence question to the end of testimony. That children was not sensitive to the self-confidence of testimony might be unaware of it. The follow-up Research should focus on the interaction of independent exploration, observing others experiment and informant testimony on preschool children's scientific thinking, on the influence of evidence strength and on how to improve children's scientific thinking in preschool curriculum. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Study on the Justice of Distribution of Rewarding and Punishing in the Different Social Situation among Children 2018, 41(5): 1151-1157.  Abstract ( )   PDF (405KB) ( )   Justice has become the main theme of the community. In the field of psychology, Piaget is the earliest to study fair of justice as a moral standard, based on the two aspects of behavior and judgement the fairness of individual distribution.The present research explored the children’s justice of distribution of rewarding and punishing in the situation of social exclusion and social acceptance. With the individual-accidental exclusion paradigm and the third-party reward and penalty allocation paradigm, the behavior of the justice of reward and punishments, as well as the judgment of the justice of reward and punishments were studied among 8-9-year-old children. In study 1, the aim of the experiment was to analyse the characteristic of, as well as the effect role of social exclusion in the behavior of distributive justice about the distribution of rewarding and punishing among children aged 8-9. A 2(social situation:social exclusion vs.social acceptance)×2(8-year-old vs. 9-year-old)×4(type of behavior task:good behavior awarded vs. bad behavior punished vs.good behavior punished vs. bad behavior awarded) mixed design was adopted in study 1. A total of 122 children aged 8-9 aged were tested and were randomly assigned to the experiment group.The results were as follows: (1)The fair behavior of rewards and punishments in the social exclusion group was significantly more than that in the social acceptance group, and the unfair behavior of reward and punishments allocation in the social exclusion group was significantly less than that in the social acceptance group;(2)In the social exclusion group, the fairness of reward and punishments was higher than that of the social acceptance group. In study 2, the intent of the experiment was to analyse the characteristic of, as well as the effect role of social exclusion in the judgement of distributive justice about the distribution of rewarding and punishing among children aged 8-9. A 2(social situation:social exclusion vs.social acceptance)×2(8-year-old vs. 9-year-old)×4(type of judgement task:targeted punishment vs. targeted reward vs. collective punishment vs. collective reward) mixed design was adopted in study 2. A total of 126 children aged 8-9 aged were tested and were randomly assigned to the experiment group.Results showed that (1)The judgement of the reward and punishments distributive justice in the 9 year-old group was significantly higher than that of the 8-year-old group, and the unfair behavior of reward and punishments of the 9-year-old group was lower than that of the 8-year-old group; (2) The fair judgment of reward and punishments allocation of the 9-year-old group was significantly higher than that of the 8-year-old group, and the unfair distribution of reward and punishments of the 9-year-old group was lower than that of the 8-year-old group. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated in the context of social exclusion, there were significantly improving trend with age increasing in the fairness, including the behavior of children's reward and punishment distribution, as well as the judgment of children's reward and punishment. Related Articles | Metrics

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;The effect of social economic status, parent-child relationship on poverty children’s problem behavior Jian Guan 2018, 41(5): 1145-1150.  Abstract ( )   PDF (611KB) ( )   Poor children living in detrimental environment are facing a lot of mental and physical healthy threatens, not only hurt children’s development of brain but also led to emotional disorder and problem behavior. Parent-child relationship and family social economic status are discovered having vital effect on children’s whole life development, which will shape character, behavior and emotion of children. Social economic status can predict some children’s problem behavior. Good parent-child relationship can become protect element for poor children, helping children to defeat setbacks. To our knowledge, many researchers have devoted to find out the direct effect of poverty disadvantages on children, however, the mechanism of poverty effecting on children problem behavior still not clear and the policy of psychological aiding poverty is also exploring. In this situation, the current study focuses on parent-child relationship and family social economic status how to effect on poverty children’s problem behavior and we hope to get a glimpse of the underlying process of poor children problem behavior. In this study, 247 poverty children (126 boys, mean age = 10.76, SD = 1.16) as subjects join in our questionnaire survey. We test 6 variables including social economic status, mother-child relationship, father-child relationship, depression, self-control ability and problem behavior and all the data was analyzed by R2.3.2. We examined the correlation between two variables and constructed a multiple mediates model using structural equation model, which have two mediate variables, including depression and self-control ability. The correlation results show that: (1) Parent-children relationship significantly relates to depression, self-control ability and problem behavior. (2) Social economic status and depression relate significantly. (3) Depression, self-control ability and problem behavior are significantly relating to each other. The multiple mediates model shows that: (1) Depression and self-control ability are two mediators of the mediate effect of social economic status and parent-child relationship on poverty children’s problem behavior. Parent-child relationship and economic status have indirect effect on poor children though depression and self-control ability. (2) There are 57.60% mediation effects relating to depression mediator and it can negatively predict poverty children problem behavior. (3) Self-control ability involved in 57.15% variation of poverty children problem behavior. (4) About 91.25% mediation effects relate to parent-child relationship mediate path and the difference between parent-child relationship and economic status is significant. We can conclude that: (1) Parent-child relationship has a bigger effect on poor children than economic status. Parent-child relationship has a tight relationship on children’s mental health and children’s self-control ability. (2) Depression and self-control ability are very important mediate paths on children problem behavior. They should be given more attention in aiding poverty projects. At the same time, the self-control ability of poor children can be predicted by depression. Finding of this study give us some suggestions: The aiding poverty policy should concern about parent-child relationship. Improving parental relationship will become a protective factor for poor children. Meanwhile, social and government also should focus on mental health of poor children. Mental health is the most significant mediator in the whole study. It can convey the pressure of poverty and also be a reason for children’s bad behavior and weak self-control ability. But government and social charity institutions help poor children by giving them money not concentrating on psychological interventions. So in the future, government and social charity institutions should increase effective psychological counseling mechanism for poor children. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of Visual and Aural Emotional Design on Multimedia Learning 2018, 41(5): 1124-1129.  Abstract ( )   PDF (579KB) ( )   Emotional design refers to the use of a series of design features, such as the design layout, color, and sound in multimedia environments, to increase the attractiveness of learning materials, induce learners' positive emotions and promote multimedia learning. It has not yet reached a consensus whether visual emotional design can induce learners' positive emotions, increase learners' mental effort, and improve retention and transfer tests. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning holds that we can process visual information through visual channel and audio information through aural channel. Previous studies only examined the effects of visual emotional design on multimedia learning. Can aural emotional design also increase the attractiveness of learning materials, induce learners' positive emotions and promote multimedia learning? In this study, we used two experiments to examine the impact of visual and aural emotional design on multimedia learning, respectively. In experiment 1, a total of 100 participants were recruited and 60 subjects' data were analyzed. The experimental material was a Flash animation, "How the Immune System Works", combined with narration. The learning materials of the visual emotional design group used bright colors (such as orange, blue), combined with round and anthropomorphic design. The learning materials of the neutral design group used black, white and gray colors, and the cells were designed as rectangles. The results suggested that the positive emotions and the retention scores of the emotional design group were significantly higher than those of the neutral design group, but there was no significant difference in cognitive load or transfer test between the two groups. In experiment 2, a total of 176 participants were recruited, and 93 subjects' data were analyzed. We used the learning materials of the neutral design group. As for the narration materials, we used the Pitch-Synchronous Overlap Add of Praat software to increase 0.5 Equivalent Rectangular Bandwidths (ERB) of the raw pitch so to form a treble pitch; similarly, the original pitch was reduced by 0.5ERB to form a bass pitch. Results indicated that positive emotions, germane cognitive load, retention test scores of the bass group were significantly higher than those of the raw pitch group; retention and transfer test scores of the bass group were significantly higher than those of the treble pitch group; germane cognitive load of the treble group were significantly higher than those of the raw pitch group; the three pitch groups did not differ from each other in other aspects. This study shows that both visual and aural emotional design can significantly facilitate and improve multimedia learning outcomes. The corroboration of the effects of aural emotional design on multimedia learning has contributed to the existing research, in which previous researchers only optimized learning materials through visual emotional design. Thus we expanded the definition of emotional design in multimedia learning to include aural emotional design. In this study, we examined visual and aural emotional design separately. However, according to the channel principle of multimedia learning, visual and aural information presented at the same time is better than information presented separately. Therefore, future researchers are encouraged to test the relevant research question. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Loneliness on Problematic Mobile Social Networks Usage for Adolescents: The Role of Interpersonal Distress and Positive Self Presentation 2018, 41(5): 1117-1123.  Abstract ( )   PDF (610KB) ( )   Abstract: the development of mobile Internet has pushed the contemporary society to a new era of digital Internet. The use of social networking based on mobile Internet profoundly affects the reality and internet life for adolescents. More and more practical problems are transferred to the Internet. The boundaries between the real world and the virtual world become more and more blurred, which brings more challenges to social governance. The current study shows that there is a close relationship between the problematic mobile social networks usage for adolescents and personality, negative emotion, social psychological motivation, especially loneliness, interpersonal distress and positive self presentation are important risk predictors for the problematic mobile social networks usage. As a negative emotion, loneliness is a kind of unpleasant subjective emotional experience caused by lack of social communication ability or lack of social networking. It is closely related to social communication ability, and interpersonal disturbance is the main manifestation of insufficient social interaction ability. Positive self presentation is also an important predictor of the problematic mobile social networks usage for adolescents. Those who have positive emotions and frequently use social networking to send information, update their status and make comments, have a low level of loneliness and are not easy to produce problematic usage. Those who have passive emotion and use the mobile social networks have a higher level loneliness and more prone to problematic behavior. It can be seen that loneliness, interpersonal distress and positive self-presentation have an impact on the problematic mobile social networking usage for adolescents, and there may be complex mechanisms between these variables. Since the main motivation of adolescents to use mobile social networks is to satisfy positive social experiences through mobile social networks usage, whether adolescents with higher loneliness prefer to reduce their loneliness through active self-presentation to experience active socialization Experience? Do interpersonal adolescents also want to experience positive social experiences through positive self-presentation? Will interpersonal disturbances triggered by loneliness also further motivate individuals to seek more positive self-gratification and lead to the problematic mobile social networks usage? In order to explore the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile social networking usage, and the interaction mechanism between interpersonal distress and positive self presentation in loneliness and problematic mobile social networks usage for adolescents. A total of 2,872 students from secondary schools and universities were surveyed by loneliness scale, interpersonal relationship comprehensive diagnosis scale, social network self presentation scale and adolescents problematic mobile social network usage questionnaire, the statistical analysis was carried out by SPSS 18.0, Amos and bias correction non-parametric percentile Bootstrap confidence interval method. The results showed that there was a significant positive correlation between loneliness, interpersonal distress, positive self presentation and problematic mobile social networks usage. Loneliness, interpersonal distress, positive self presentation had positive predictive effect on the problematic mobile social networks usage. Interpersonal distress, positive self presentation play a mediating role in the relationship between loneliness and problematic mobile social networks usage, while the influence of loneliness on problematic mobile social networks usage is mediated by multiple chains intermediaries of interpersonal distress and positive self presentation. Therefore the effect of loneliness on problematic mobile social networks usage is mediated by interpersonal disturbance and positive self presentation. Related Articles | Metrics

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Growing Old: Socially Constructed by Age 2018, 41(5): 1207-1213.  Abstract ( )   PDF (801KB) ( )   As the aging society continues to affect our lives, issues and theories regarding aging warrant critical attention. Aging or ageing is the process of becoming older. Growing old or subjective aging refers to how people experience during their aging process, including such as cognitive judgments, emotional reactions, and the like. It is a common knowledge that a human being is definitely growing old when his or her age continuously rises, whereas we seemingly barely know what kind of experiences and reactions we would have while we are aging. Hence, the current study is to investigate how the old respond to his or her own aging process. With this aim, a qualitative study was employed to explore the experience of growing old of older people. The study conducted semi-structured interviews with 12 older informants. The author interviewed the participants one by one at their own homes or in the nursing home for at least two 60~120 minutes sessions. Two of them were done for 3 sessions. All records were transcribed into texts and then were imported into Nvivo 10.0 where the texts were analyzed based on phenomenological analysis and grounded theory. 294 primary nodes and 794 references were generated by open coding and then were classified into 19 secondary nodes by axial coding; By selective coding, 18 secondary nodes, consisting of 287 primary nodes and 769 references, were finally selected and then were categorized into 5 tertiary nodes. In respondent validation, describable validity, interpretive validity and commentative validity were 5, 4.77, 4.38 respectively. Theory and reflexivity validation were as means of validating the results, as well. Results demonstrated that the process of the age accumulation is equal to the process of growing old, and during this process, four mental states of aging, including denial, acceptance, anxiety and sorrow, were constructed by the age. When cross the boundary of old age, in spite of physical and mental decline, the old fight against being aged by distinguishing chronological age and subjective age; While getting a little older, they cling to the inevitable senescence and thus accept their identity of a lagger and a retiree; At the onset of an acceleration of aging process and with the emergence of age-related diseases and chronic illnesses, the aged with a physical or mental disability worry the burden of care falling on their adult children; As approaching to the end of their life, fear of death and “duty to die” has been frustrating the aged who surely believe in eternal oblivion rather than the afterlife once the death happens. Results above lead to a conclusion which is that growing old is a progressive stagewise process based on age, consisting of denial, acceptance, anxiety and sorrow. Related Articles | Metrics

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Protean Career Orientation: Review and Prospect 2018, 41(5): 1221-1226.  Abstract ( )   PDF (289KB) ( )   Abstract In the contemporary professional environment, there are many unforeseen changes because of wider economic, societal, and technological developments. Moreover, the changing nature of both work and people’s attitude has driven an academic need to understand the connection between employees and their place of employment, the role of employees in their career development in that are increasingly mobile and self-direct in their careers. Protean career orientation describes a career tendency presented in one’s career, that is, a tendency for individuals to achieve subjective career success by managing their careers autonomously. PCO has two dimensions: self-directed and values-driven. Self-directed refers to the individual's tendency to self-manage by proactively exploring career choices and making career decisions; values-driven are directed to individuals who take the initiative to pursue goals that are meaningful to themselves, rather than passively accepting the values that organizations and society impose on them. In other words, the values held by individuals are the driving force for their career success in their protean career, and the organization simply provides them with the opportunity to align their career choices with personal values. The measurement of PCO includes two types: two-factor structure and single factor structure. The two-factor structure contains a self-directed scale and a value-driven scale developed by Briscoe et al. (2006). Many studies have used this scale. However, a few studies have shown that this scale has some ambiguity, and the two dimensions in this scale are not clearly differentiated (De Bruin et al., 2010). Further, the scale with a two-factor structure has been simplified by Baruch (2014) into a scale with a single factor structure . The article generalizes six influencing factors from individual and situational dimensions: demographics, proactive personality, work orientation, organizational learning climate, social support and social culture. For example, different sexes have different effects on PCO. Some studies have shown that women are more likely to have PCO than men. This article also reviews research conducted to unveil the effects of PCO on career success and job attitudes. For example, PCO has a significant positive impact on subjective career success, and has no significant effect on objective career success. In terms of the impacts on job attitudes, it has been found that PCO can affect the employee's organizational commitment but also increase their intention to quit. By reviewing the literature on the subject of PCO, we have found that there are some shortcomings in this area that need to be remedied in future research: (1) to build a clear and widely accepted theoretical framework of PCO that can withstand verification of the empirical study; (2) to consider whether these scales of PCO are valid in other cultural contexts, such as China; (3) to study the antecedents of PCO from different perspectives; (4) to explore the impact of PCO from the organizational level; (5) and to use the method of longitudinal research to explore a dynamic evolution of PCO process. Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-concept Clarity and Meaning in Life Among Young Gay Men: Influence Mechanism Analysis 2018, 41(5): 1178-1184.  Abstract ( )   PDF (625KB) ( )   In recent years, mental health of homosexuals has attracted much attention from society and academia. Meaning in Life is an excellent indicator of mental health. Meaning in life refers as one’s perception of life value and importance. Individuals who have a high sense of meaning in life can deeply understand their life experience, as well as realize the purpose of their own life. Previous studies have demonstrated that the high prevalence of homosexuals’ problem behavior is derived from the lack of meaning in life. Thus, it is necessary to enhance the homosexuals’ meaning in life. However, recent theories and studies focused more on the effect of social prejudice on homosexuals’ mental health, while few studies examined whether positive psychological trait can improve homosexuals’ mental health. Self-concept clarity refers to the degree to which individuals clearly define their own self-concepts. As an important psychological trait that reduce the impact of social prejudice, self-concept clarity is believed to effectively improve homosexuals’ mental health. In the present study, we aimed to examine the relation between self-concept clarity and meaning in life among young gay men, and investigated the mediating effect of internalized homonegativity and coping self-efficacy between them. 405 young gay men were enrolled by web-based sampling method. All the participants were 16-35 years old, and their self-definitions were homosexuals. Self-concept clarity was assessed with General Self-concept clarity Scale, which contains 12 items. Previous research has indicated that this scale has good reliability and validity. Meaning in Life was assessed with Steger’s Meaning in Life Scale, which consists of two dimensions: the presence of meaning and the search for meaning. In this study, only the dimension of presence of meaning was selected. This dimension contains 5 items. In addition, internalized homonegativity was examined by Internalized Homonegativity Scale originally from Herek, Cogan, Gillis and Glunt. This scale has 8 items. At last, coping self-efficacy was rated by a 13-item Coping Self-efficacy Scale. This scale has 3 dimensions: problem-focused coping self-efficacy, self-efficacy of stopping unpleasant emotions and thoughts , and self-efficacy of getting support from friends. Results indicated that: (1) Self-concept clarity of young gay men was positively correlated with meaning in life. (2) Internalized homonegativity and coping self-efficacy played a chain mediating effect between self-concept clarity and meaning in life. That is, Self-concept clarity affected coping self-efficacy through internalized homonegativity, and then, affected meaning in life through coping self-efficacy. (3) Coping self-efficacy played a mediating role between self-concept clarity and meaning in life. That is, Self-concept clarity can indirectly influence meaning in life through coping self-efficacy. Two important research implications can be obtained from this study. Firstly, self-concept clarity plays a significant role in improving homosexuals’ mental health. Thus, social worker should encourage homosexuals to deeply explore themselves and reflect on their own life experiences. Secondly, although internalized homonegativity is considered as a significant factor to affect homosexuals’ mental health, we should pay more attention to develop homosexuals’ coping skills in order to strengthen their self-efficacy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Old Wine in New Bottles or Innovation:Is Inclusive Leadership an Independent Leadership Type? 2018, 41(5): 1158-1163.  Abstract ( )   PDF (926KB) ( )   With the increasing diversity of employees in the workplace, inclusive leadership as a new leadership type has been put forwarded and attracted many researchers’ eyes. Inclusive leadership focus on leader inclusiveness to indicate leader behaviors that invite and appreciate inputs from others, thus help shape their team member’ beliefs that “their voices are genuinely valued”. As a particular model of relational leadership, inclusive leadership exhibit high openness, accessibility and availability in their interaction with followers, and was been taken as an effective leadership. Leadership is the most popular research topic in organizational behavior which has almost 100 years history. During this long period, there are so many leadership styles such as transformational leadership, transactional leadership, ethical leadership and paternalistic leadership. Some scholars had pointed that there are overlaps among these leaderships and the concept of inclusive leadership may be act as old wine in a new bottle, because inclusion is the biggest character of inclusive leadership, but taking care employees, admitting their contribution also are the elements of transformational leadership and some other leaderships. So we want to know whether it is different from transformational leadership or other leaderships. In other words, whether inclusive leadership is an independent leadership type. Further, Does inclusive leadership has incremental and dominant effects on outcome variables? Based on optimal distinctiveness theory and relational leadership theory, the main purpose of this paper is to answer these questions via empirical research. Longitudinal survey method was used to collect data in two company and get 176 valid samples at last. We collected inclusive leadership, transformational leadership, transactional leadership and paternalistic leadership data at first, and collected leader member exchange (LMX) and job satisfaction data 2 months later. The empirical study results shows that compared with transformational leadership, transactional leadership and paternalistic leadership, inclusive leadership has an independent construct, and it also has incremental and dominant effects on LMX and job satisfaction. Some statistical method such as confirmatory factor analysis, correlational analysis, hierarchical regression and dominant analysis were used. Taking together, these results mean inclusive leadership is an independent leadership and its prediction effectiveness on outcome variables are more than transformational leadership, transactional leadership and paternalistic leadership. It is very important to test inclusive leadership is an independent leadership type. As what mentioned before, some scholars query there are overlaps among these leaderships and it need to test the difference. Our results show that inclusive leadership has an independent construct and also has incremental and dominant effects in prediction. That means optimal distinctiveness theory and relational leadership theory as the theoretical basis of inclusive leadership have powerful explaining ability and inclusive leadership is an effective leadership to match the current complexity management situation. This work not only responds some research calling, but also can build a foundation for the theoretic and empirical research of inclusive leadership in future. Due to the importance of inclusive leadership, organizations should cultivate and develop inclusive leadership through select leaders with high idea of equality and equity, foster inclusive culture or climate, and train leaders how to exhibit high openness, accessibility and availability in their interaction with followers. Limitations and future directions also are discussed Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Perceived Supervisory Status on Subordinates’ Moqi——The Roles of Feedback Seeking Behavior and Perspective Taking 2018, 41(5): 1200-1206.  Abstract ( )   PDF (705KB) ( )   In the daily work of organization, we often find that some employees are able to complete the task well without supervisor’s explicit and directional guidance. Such phenomenon can be explained by the existence of moqi which refers to a state of unspoken or tacit understanding between two parties. When applied in the work situation, known as subordinates’ moqi. It reflects a state between subordinate and supervisor, whereby supervisor implies something and subordinate senses and understands it tacitly. To date, empirical study has suggested that subordinates’ feedback seeking behavior can promote subordinates’ moqi. However, we consider that there may exist a distal antecedent of subordinates’ moqi based on proactive motivation model. Thus, we proposed a moderated mediation model wherein perceived supervisory status predict subordinates’ moqi via feedback seeking behavior, and perspective taking serves as the second stage moderator. Several hypotheses are posited: (1) subordinates’ perceived supervisory status is positively related to moqi; (2) feedback seeking behavior mediates the relationship between perceived supervisory status and moqi; (3) the feedback seeking behavior-moqi relationship and the indirect effect of feedback seeking behavior are contingent upon the level of perspective taking. A field study was conducted to test our hypotheses. We collected the data from part-time graduate students at a university located in Guangzhou, China. They were all full-time employees. To avoid the potential for common-method bias, the survey data were collected at three time points, separated by two weeks. At Time 1, students were asked to report their perceived supervisory status and demographic information. Two weeks later (Time 2), they were asked to rate their feedback seeking behavior and perspective taking ability. Two weeks after Time 2 (Time 3), they were again asked to report their moqi. The final sample consisted of 186 part-time graduate students. Then we adopted a series of regression analysis and got four conclusions: (1) subordinates’ perceived supervisory status was positively related to subordinates’ moqi; (2) feedback seeking behavior partially mediated the relationship between perceived supervisory status and subordinates’ moqi; (3) perspective taking moderated the relationship between feedback seeking behavior and subordinates’ moqi, such that this positive relationship as well as the indirect effect of feedback seeking behavior were stronger when subordinates’ perspective taking was high. In the end, we discussed several important theoretical and practical implications of this study. First, our study explored the antecedent of subordinate’s moqi and its underlying mechanism, which enriches the empirical research on subordinates’ moqi. Second, through exploring the mediating role of feedback seeking behavior, this study provided the empirical evidence for previous study and also advanced its findings. Third, by revealing the moderating role of perspective taking, we enrich the moderating mechanism in the relationship between feedback seeking behavior and subordinates’ moqi. Moreover, there are also some enlightenment to practice. Managers should strive to improve their own work and management skills in order to gain more resources and attention to the organization. On the other hand, organizations should attach importance to cultivate and improve employees’ ability of perspective taking. Finally, limitations and future directions are discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Perspective of cultural differences on the formationmechanism construction and the neural basis of individual cooperative behavior 有明 宋 2018, 41(5): 1227-1232.  Abstract ( )   PDF (362KB) ( )   Cooperative behavior refers to the behavior or intention of individuals or groups in order to achieve common goals and interests. According to the previous related researches, cooperative behavior not only can maximize the common interests of society and fundamentally solve all kinds of social contradictions, conflicts, crises and dilemmas; as one of the main forms of pro-social behavior, cooperative behavior but also can increase the probability of individual survival and reproduction, promote the formation of human language, and enhance the productivity and economic performance as well. Therefore, cooperative behavior is of great significance to the survival and development of all us mankind. However, the previous studies of cooperative behavior were mostly concentrated on the development trend of age, influencing factors and socioeconomic functions of cooperative behavior. What’s more, most of the research subjects were limited to get researches on infants, children, adolescents and organizations. However, few studies explored the evolution, influencing mechanism and neural basis of cooperative behavior from the perspective of cultural differences between different cultures. In view of this, this study is based on the perspective of cultural differences, aiming at exploring the evolution of cooperative behavior, the influence mechanism and the formation of its neural basis. In this way, our purpose is to construct the social cognitive mediation mechanism between culture and individual cooperative behavior, and it can also help us to explain cultural differences in other areas of individual behavior. To be more specific, first of all, this study discusses the importance of cooperative behavior to human society, and explained the evolution of cooperation behavior and it’s cultural differences from self construction model, cultural adaptation theory and realistic conflict theory. Secondly, this research took empathy, attribution, cognitive style, aggressive cognition and values for instance, and constructed the influence intermediary mechanism between different cultures and individual cooperative behavior with social cognition; Thirdly, this study also discussed and collected the cultural differences of cognitive neural mechanisms; Finally, on the basis of papers mentioned above, this study proposed the social cognitive mediation model of cooperative behavior in the cultural influence, and conducted a further confirmation for the mediating mechanism that influences the cooperative behavior through the social cognitive activities in the neurophysiological layer, and also pointed out the deficiencies and limitations of the model mentioned above, such as the imperfection of the mediating role of social cognition , the lack of empirical results support the neural mechanism of attribution, the insufficiency of the cross-cultural differences and consistency for the social cognitive activities of empathy, attribution, etc. Meanwhile, this study pointed out the neural mechanism of social cognitive activities in different cultural backgrounds for the empathy, attribution, field cognitive style, moral disengagement, aggressive cognition and values and so on. The further exploration will be made on how to contact with individual cooperative behavior and the lack of ecological validity of present research paradigm and experimental task of cooperative behavior, etc. As a result, future researches can be carried out based on the social cognitive content and neural mechanism of the cultural differences of cooperative behavior from an empirical perspective. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Psychological Effects of Residential Mobility: From the Perspective of changes in social environment 2018, 41(5): 1185-1191.  Abstract ( )   PDF (355KB) ( )   Residential mobility was defined as the frequency of relocation. On an individual level, it refers to the frequency that people change their residence. On a societal level, it refers to the percentage of residents who have moved in a given period in a given area. Residential mobility leads to the changes of social environment. Social environment here mainly implies the dynamic social relationship and social network built through social interaction, including family, relatives, peers, school and neighborhood. From the perspective of changes in social environment, we reviewed the effects of residential mobility on people’s feeling, thinking and behaviors. First, we reviewed research methods and results of previous studies regarding children/adolescents. The international researches mainly conducted longitudinal studies. They measured the number of moves in last one year, five years or in a specific period of time. The researches in China often used surveys to compare the differences of psychological states between children/adolescents in high residential mobility group and those in low residential mobility group. Results of these studies showed that moves interrupted the consistency of critical social environments (e.g. school and neighborhood) needed for the growth of children/adolescents, led caregivers to reduce parent-child interaction and educational expenditure, decreased quantity and quality of relationships between children/adolescents and their neighbors or peers. These changes of social environments generated by residential mobility have negative influence on children’s/adolescents’ self-regulation, cognition, emotions, problem behaviors, social relationship and group behaviors. Second, we reviewed the methods and findings of previous studies regarding adults. International studies investigated psychological effects of residential mobility both by surveys and by experiments. One type of surveys is to use questionnaires to measure psychological variables of participants and ask them to report moving history from 5-year-old to their age of college. Another type of surveys is to use of census data to acquire the information of residential mobility and psychological variables. The experiments conducted to test psychological effects of residential mobility often manipulated residential mobility by priming or role playing. Researches in China conducted surveys to compare the mental health of high residential mobility group (i.e., floating population) with that of lower residential mobility group or with the means of China. Residential mobility breaks familiar interpersonal relationships, brings people into unfamiliar social relationships and decrease social supports. These changes of social environment evoke negative emotions (e.g. anxiety, loneliness, sadness), decrease the level of well-being and mental health, but motivate people to expand their social networks. High residential mobility also makes people to switch belonging groups and social identities frequently. As a result, residential mobility lowers the level of collective self, increases the level of individual self, leads to conditional group identification, and decreases pro-social behaviors. Finally, on the basis of the above review, we discussed the following three questions: 1.What are the associations among the psychological effects of residential mobility in childhood, adolescence and adulthood? 2. Whether and how residential mobility influences pro-self behaviors? 3. What are the future research directions of psychological effects of residential mobility in China? Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Dialect on Social Decision Making and Emotion--Evidence from Electrophysiology 2018, 41(5): 1171-1177.  Abstract ( )   PDF (761KB) ( )   While recent studies have shed light on the relationship between language and decision, less is known about diglossia and social decision-making, especially regarding empirical evidence. The present study was designed to investigate the effect of language type (dialect and mandarin) on diglossia speakers’ social decision-making by two experiments using within-participants design. The purpose of the first experiment was to determine whether dialect has an impact on the diglossia speakers’ group decision making by using adapted public good game (PGG), including interpersonal trust, cooperation and emotion level. Experiment 2 used ultimatum game (UG) to investigate the effect of dialect on individual’s social decision. Participants were undergraduates whose hometowns were Qingdao or Weifang in Shandong province and started to speak dialect from birth. All the recordings were recorded by proficient diglossia speakers and edited by Adobe Audition CS5.5. All the stimuli were presented on a 14-inch Lenovo computer by E-prime 2.0. In experiment 1, participants were told to play a game with other 3 undergraduates performed by our experimenters in separate room. Participants first completed PANAS questionnaire. Then we used physiological recorder MP150 to measure eletrocardio and skin conductance activity lasted for 5 minutes as baseline. Each subject has 30 yuan, and they can secretly choose how many of their private tokens to put into a public pot. The tokens in this pot are multiplied by two and this "public good" payoff is evenly divided among players. Each subject also keeps the tokens they do not contribute. Before they put tokens into the pot, they has 15s to express their opinions. Participants were told that 4 participants spoke in random but actually the procedure was fixed and the participant spoke at last in this way he may find that all the other participants spoke in the same dialect as him. After speaking stage, participant need to complete 4 ratings, including PANAS, trust rating, cooperation rating, level of similarity in dialect with other three undergraduates. Experiment 2 was 2 (language: dialect and mandarin)×4 (distribution plan: ￥5-￥5, ￥3-￥7, ￥2-￥8, ￥1-￥9) design. There was a total of 32 trails in formal experiment. In a trial, a black fixation was presented for 800ms first. Then, the distribution plan was played in two levels randomly in 5000ms. Next, the responders made their decisions whether they accepted and got the responding money or refused and neither of the two individuals received any money. After that was a feedback for 1500ms. At last, a blank screen was presented in 500ms. The results indicated that: (1) In PGG, participants expressed higher interpersonal trust (p = .044), cooperation (p = .017), positive emotion variation (p < .001), heart rate variation (p = .008) in dialect level than mandarin level. In mandarin level, the trust score correlated positively with cooperation score (p < .001) and negatively with negative emotion (p = .004). Furthermore, the trust score fully mediated the relationship between negative emotion and cooperation score. (2) In UG, the more equitable the proposals were, the higher the acceptance rate was. Participants had significantly higher acceptance rate of the distribution plans spoken in dialect than in mandarin, p = .03. These findings highlighted on the influence of dialect on people’s cognitive, emotion and decision-making, providing new ideas for further study of language and decision-making. Related Articles | Metrics

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Control Deprivation Stimulates State Grit: The Mediating Effects of Approach Motivation Dong-Ting YUN 2018, 41(5): 1192-1199.  Abstract ( )   PDF (832KB) ( )   The control deprivation has two kinds of effect on individuals, learned helplessness or more courage in dilemma. A literature proposed that brief experiences of control deprivation make people reassert control with more efforts, and prolonged experiences of control deprivation make people give up and cease seeking control. Thus the time length of the control deprivation matters. Prolonged experiences of control deprivation costs much energy which leads to negative consequence while brief experiences of control deprivation bring people with constructive power—state grit. Approach motivation facilitates goal-realization and might be the mechanism underlining the influence of control deprivation. The study conducted 2 experiments with a concept-identification task in order to examine effects of different types of control deprivation on state grit. Firstly, participants were instructed to identify which figure was the correct instance of a conceptual rule that they were expected to infer. In the control deprivation condition, the participants did get feedback on whether their answers were correct or incorrect, but the feedback was randomly determined and, thus, not contingent on the participant’s answers. Whereas participants in the short control deprivation condition performed 4 blocks of 10 trials, each on the concept identification task, the long control deprivation condition consisted of 12 blocks of 10 trials. Experiment 1 manipulated the length of time (prolong vs. brief) and the sense of control (maintenance vs. deprivation), 90 undergraduates were randomly organized into four groups. The state grit was measured by self-report scales (Grit-S). The results of experiment 1 showed that the significant interaction effect on state grit between time-length and control types, especially on perseverance of effort factor (p < .05), but not on consistency of interests factor. The simple effect test showed that the effect on perseverance of effort of the short-time group was significantly higher than that of the long-time group (p < .05) under the control deprivation condition. No significant difference between the two groups under the control maintenance condition was showed. The results of experiment 1 indicated that brief experiences of control deprivation created perseverance of effort, which built foundation for experiment 2 to select behavioral measures for perseverance of effort. Experiment 2 conducted a between-group design and manipulated the types of control (brief experiences of control deprivation vs. prolonged experiences of control deprivation) in order to deeply explore the function of high and low approach motivation, and 67 undergraduates were primed by the two categories. Besides, the experiment 2 had a grip task（the performance of grip was calculated by the length of time: time of persistence-the base-lined time）. Correlation analysis results showed that the types of control were positively correlated with high approach motivation, perseverance of effort factor and grip grades, and high approach motivation was positively correlated with perseverance of effort factor and grip grades. The results showed that the high approach motivation acted as the mediator between brief experiences of control deprivation and state grit. The findings implicated that brief experiences of control deprivation created a state of grit through the high approach motivation, and especially on perseverance of effort. In general, the present study provided supportive evidence of the idea that grit exhibits state-like tendencies and the evidence of making people “grittier ” through training, which lead researchers to focus on the power of the individuals’ potential. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Processing and Categorical Perception of Emotional Faces in College Students with Social Delay 2018, 41(5): 1164-1170.  Abstract ( )   PDF (1191KB) ( )   Social delay refers to the one with normal cognitive development but their social development was inferior to peers', such as self-concerned on the interpersonal relationship, incapable to feel sympathy for others, and the mal-adaption on social behavior. The study take the college students with social delay as experimental group and the normal students as compared group, to clarify the differences of their recognition on facial expressions, to investigate the processing characteristics of facial expression on college students with social delay and analyze the possible reasons, as well as to confirm the effect of categorical perception for emotional faces. The MorphMan technology were used to produce the continua on which each face expressions differed in signal intensity. On the experiment 1, the participants were asked to recognize the basic facial expressions (sad, angry, fear, surprise, happy, disgust) with changing intensity. The result shows that the performance of facial expression recognition are getting better with the intensity increased, except for fear emotion. The college students with social delay have longer reaction time for those basic facial expressions than their normal peers, and lower accuracy on angry emotion. Additionally, the students with social delay having the best performance on sad emotion. The categorical perception paradigm are adopted on experiment 2. On the AB-X discrimination task, participants viewed facial expressions A and B that differed by 20% intensity increments, and to discriminate the image X is identity with A or B. The result shows that the social delay group are significant slower on discrimination than their normal peers. And confirmed the categorical perception effect of facial expressions that although participants are presented with a series of facial expressions distributed along a continuum between emotions, observers perceive these stimuli as belonging to discrete categories, the result also demonstrated the between-category advantage. After the AB-X task, all the students completed an identification task, they identified the expression of morphed facial image(happy-sad, angry-sad, angry-fear). The social delay group are significant slower to identify the expression that contained angry emotion than their normal peers. Then, fitted logistic function P=c+(d-c )/(1+e– (x–a)/b) for each continuum of each individual and using Matlab.R2017b to calculate the intensity of morphed facial expression x when P=0.5. The result shows that all the category boundaries (x) are shifted on social delay group, not much proportions of sadness is enough for them to identify, while the larger proportions of anger are required. The present experiments provide the evidence that processing ability of facial expressions on students with social delay are significant poorer than their peers, the reaction time are much longer and their performance on angry emotion are impaired. Notably, they got the perceptual bias on sadness. The individual with social delay are very likely to respond by avoidance in the face of negative signal on social interactions, and this social style may cause the lower self-efficiency and the learned helplessness, an overwhelming feeling of sad may generated by this way. On the opposite, they are very unlikely to taking control measures to deal with the negative signal on social interactions, somehow, it may leads to the inability to express their anger. The study focus on the processing characteristics of facial expressions on college students with social delay, it provides the direction for intervention. Transfer the attribution on social failure from innate and stable factors(e.g. capability) to innate and unstable factors(e.g. efforts), the reattribution training can significant moderating the sense of helpless and reducing the occurrence of helplessness interpretation. Moreover, the social skills coaching help to improve the performance on social interaction for students with social delay, reduce the avoidant social behaviors and promoting on self-efficiency. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Analyses of Mediation Effects Based on Two-Condition Within-Participant Design Yang WANG Zhong-Lin WEN 2018, 41(5): 1233-1239.  Abstract ( )   PDF (684KB) ( )   Mediation effects analyses are frequently applied to the studies of psychology and other social science disciplines. Because mediation is helpful to explain how and why two variables are related, not only questionnaire survey researchers but also experimental researchers are interested in it. Given within-participant design is one of the most commonly used designs in experimental psychology study, how to make a mediation effects analysis based on the data from such a design become a noteworthy issue. Suppose that every subject is assigned to both experimental treatments (X), and measurement for mediator (M) and dependent variable (Y) is conducted under each condition, according to general data input format (such as in SPSS), there are no X variable to regress Y and M on, and both M and Y have two column values. So the mediation analysis method for this design does not follow the well-known and traditional approach used in the questionnaire survey research designs that are cross-sectional or “between-participant” in nature. The aim of this study is to clarify how to analyze mediation effects based on two-condition within-participant design． There are two approaches for conducting mediation analysis based on the within-participant design: test of joint significance and path-analytic method. The former is easy to use, and with relatively low type I error rate. In addition, each of its step directly corresponds to the criteria of Baron and Kenny (1986) described in the context of between-participant mediation analysis. However, this method ignores the estimates of the total effect of X on Y (coefficient “c”) and the effect of X on M (coefficient “a”), and as the result, can not obtain mediation effect size measure and model diagram. Moreover, test of joint significance is hardly applied to models with multiple mediators. Path-analytic method makes up for the aforementioned shortcomings of joint significance approach, but it suffers from a higher rate of type I error than test of joint significance approach. After comprehensively considering the advantages and disadvantages of the above two methods, and making some improvements for the test of joint significance approach about how to get coefficient “c” and “a”, a procedure is proposed and recommended to integrate both methods to analyze the mediation effect when data is based on a two-condition within-participant design. (1) Adopt the test of joint significance for both the paths of the mediation. If every path is statistically significant, the mediation is supported. Even so, we had better go on to Step 2 to get the confidence interval of ab. (2) Compute the confidence interval of the coefficients product of the both mediation paths using nonparametric Bootstrap method. The mediation is not supported and testing is over if the test of joint significance does not pass and the confidence interval of ab contain 0. Otherwise, we should go to Step 3. (3) Test the direct effect of the mediation model, a significant result indicates a partial mediation. Meanwhile, if indirect effect and direct effect have a same sign, the ratio of indirect effect to total effect is recommended to report as the mediation effect size measure. An instance is given to illustrate how to perform the proposed procedure by using the SPSS and Mplus software. The directions for future study on mediation analysis for within-participant design are discussed at the end of the paper, including alternative mediation analysis approaches and multiple mediation effects based on two-condition within-participant design, mediation for multiple-condition(>3) within-participant design, and mediation for other type of within-participant design. Related Articles | Metrics

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Salivary Cortisol, Salivary Alpha-Amylase and Emotional Responses to the “Trier Social Stress Test for Children” in Healthy Chinese Children 2018, 41(5): 1240-1246.  Abstract ( )   PDF (724KB) ( )   There is substantial evidence indicating that repeated exposures to psychosocial stress in childhood might alter function of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathetic nervous system (SNS), in turn, increase the risk of various diseases in adulthood. Studying physiological responses to psychosocial stressors, especially in childhood, may help to understand the underlying mechanisms that are involved in diseases pathogenesis and to intervene early in life. Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) is a protocol for induction of moderate to intense psychosocial stress in a laboratory setting. It comprises a 10-min anticipatory period, a 5-min public speaking task (children receive the beginning of a story and finish telling the story as exciting as possible) and a 5-min mental arithmetic task (children are required to subtract 7 serially from 758 as quickly and accurately as possible, and children have to restart at 758 when a mistake is made) facing two evaluative and non-responsive audience members. The TSST-C is the most widely used psychosocial stress protocol in stress research of human subjects and reliably elicits physiological stress responses, including salivary cortisol and salivary α-amylase responses, which have been recognized as reliable biomarkers for the HPA axis and SNS function, respectively. However, the applicability of TSST-C in inducing cortisol and salivary α-amylase responses among healthy Chinese children remains largely unknown. With this background, our study examined both cortisol and salivary α-amylase responses to the TSST-C in a sample of healthy children (N=150, 76 boys, 11.15 ± .86 years) in Beijing, China. Following recent stress response research (Yim et al., 2010), children completed an adapted version of the TSST-C using a different public speaking task (introducing oneself to a hypothetical new classroom of students), which is likely to induce comparable physiological responses in individuals somewhat wider age ranges than what has been examined in the past. All laboratory sessions were scheduled during the afternoon (between 14:00 and 17:30) to control for the diurnal variations of cortisol secretion. Participants were asked to refrain from any food or drink for at least 30 min before laboratory sessions. A total of six segments of salivary samples and subjective stress measures were obtained throughout the session: baseline (-20 min), after preparation (-3 min), after TSST-C task (+1 min), first recovery (+10 min), second recovery (+25 min) and third recovery (+50 min). The salivary samples were collected for analyzing cortisol and salivary α-amylase. And the subjective stress measures were used for assessing children’s psychological response. The results showed that: (1) Children exhibited significant increases in cortisol and salivary α-amylase levels, and reported higher levels of negative affect, such as anxiety and nervousness, following the TSST-C. (2) The associations among cortisol response, salivary α-amylase response, and subjective emotional response failed to reach significance. In conclusion, the findings indicate that TSST-C induces both physiological and psychological responses of sufficient magnitude in Chinese children. TSST-C is a protocol with good applicability in healthy Chinese children and could be used for stress research to explore the associations among psychosocial stressors, stress responses of HPA axis and SNS, and physical health in Chinese children. Related Articles | Metrics

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Self-Focused Attention and Social Anxiety：The Role of fear of negative evaluation and 2018, 41(5): 1261-1267.  Abstract ( )   PDF (795KB) ( )   With the awakening of people's awareness, social anxiety has gradually become one of the most important social problems. More attention has been paid to explore the mechanism of social anxiety. As the core of personality, self is connected with all aspects of mental process. The object self-awareness theory holds that individuals point to themselves or deviate from themselves at a particular time. When individuals focus on themselves, they will compare with a certain standard, perceive the gap between the real self and the ideal self, and then generate social anxiety. Many empirical studies have confirmed that self-focused attention(SFA) is associated with social anxiety, but few studies have demonstrated the influence mechanism of SFA on social anxiety. According to social anxiety cognitive behavioral model, fear of negative evaluation(FNE) is regarded as the core feature of social anxiety. In addition, the meta cognitive model points out that the characteristics of FNE in social anxiety is based on SFA. The self-focused attention model of psychopathology suggests that the negative effect of SFA is conditional. When self-concept is threatened, it will cause negative effects of SFA. Therefore, this study hypothesized that relational-interdependent self-construal(RISC), as one of the factors threatening self-concept, can moderate the relationship between SFA and FNE. In addition, it has been found that there is gender differences of RISC’s moderating effect in other variables. This study also investigated the gender differences of RISC’s moderating effect in the relationship between SFA and FNE. The purpose of this study is to explore the influence mechanism of SFA on social anxiety. 446 college students (192 boys and 254 girls) were recruited to participate in this study. They completed the self-focused attention scale, relational-interdependent self-construal scale, fear of negative evaluation scale and social anxiety scale. Bootstrap of Amos is used as the analytic method to analyze and process the data. The results indicated that: FNE mediated the relationship of SFA to social anxiety. SFA predicted FNE significantly (β=.46, p <0.01), and FNE predicted social anxiety significantly(β=.25, p <0.01). RISC moderated the effect of SFA to FNE. The interaction term (SFA x RISC) predicted the FNE explicitly (β=.23, p <0.01). When the levels of RISC were low, the relation of SFA to FNE was crucial, but the relationship was not crucial with high SFA. The mediating effect of FNE and the moderating effect of RISC have gender differences. In the female group, the mediating effect is greater than the male group and the moderating effect of RISC is significant. While in the male group, the moderating effect of RISC is not significant. On the one hand, this study adds new results to related studies on the mechanism of social anxiety. On the other hand, it provides theoretical support for college students to relieve social anxiety. More successful social experiences can improve college students' social confidence and reduce their fear of negative evaluation. The way of individual counseling and group counseling can guide college students to form the ability to define themselves independently, and guide individuals to transfer their attention to the external environment to reduce the negative attention to self. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Subliminal Affective Priming Effects in Heroin Abstainers 2018, 41(5): 1247-1253.  Abstract ( )   PDF (617KB) ( )   Literatures shows that heroin abstainers have abnormal emotional processing, but there has no conclusion for that whether their subliminal affective processing is abnormal or not. This study uses the subliminal affective priming paradigm to examine their subliminal affective processing capabilities. Results:(1) the response of the consistent trils was significantly the shortest in both groups; and the heroin abstainers have longer response time than control group (2) there was a positive bias in heroin abstainers. Conclusions: (1) There is a subliminal affective priming effect in heroin abstainers; (2) Due to the damage caused by long-term drug dependence, the subliminal affective processing is different from normal people. Tips：Enriches the theoretical basis for prevention of relapse in heroin abstainers. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Different Types of Meditation on Creative Thinking and the Underlying Mechanism 2018, 41(5): 1254-1260.  Abstract ( )   PDF (322KB) ( )   Meditation practices are embedded in different cultures, worldviews, and traditions, which can be conceptualized as a family of complex emotional and attentional regulatory practices, involving different attentional, cognitive monitoring, and awareness processes. A great deal of research has demonstrated that meditation is beneficial to the development of cognitive function and the improvement of the ability of emotion regulation. Meanwhile, cognitive function and positive emotion also have a crucial role in the creative performance. Although there is direct evidence that meditation helps to solve the problem creatively, and meditators have a better level of creative thinking than the control group, different types of meditation may have different effects on divergent thinking and convergent thinking. Given that regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many different meditation methods, meditation practices can be usefully classified into two main styles: concentrative meditation (CM) and mindfulness meditation (MM), depending on how the attentional processes are directed. CM entails the capacities of monitoring the focus of attention and detecting distraction, disengaging attention from the source of distraction, and redirecting and engaging attention to the intended object. MM involves an attentive set that is characterized by an open presence and a nonjudgemental awareness of sensory, cognitive, and affective fields of experience in the present moment, and relates to a higher-order awareness or observation of the ongoing mental processes. This study summarized the different effects of CM and MM on divergent thinking and convergent thinking, and explored the underlying mechanism. Previous research showed that CM groups successfully solved significantly more failed problems from the pre-test session, EEG analysis showed that the less percentage of alpha waves in CM session, which contributed to maintaining an alert and mindful state during CM, which providing direct evidence for the role of CM in promoting insight. MM has also received great attention from researchers, MM improved creativity performance on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, and yielded better emotional regulation. Meanwhile, long-term mindfulness meditators exhibit better divergent thinking scores (flexibility and fluency) using the Alternative Uses task and demonstrate a negative connection between divergent thinking and resting-state DMN activity. In addition, there are some studies compared the effects of two types of meditation on divergent thinking and convergent thinking. On the one hand, MM group usually behaved better on divergent thinking tests than CM and control group, but not convergent thinking; on the other hand, although CM group exhibit better on convergent thinking as assessed by Remote Association Task than MM group and control group, the effect is weak. The impact of meditation on creative thinking can be explained by changes in cognitive function and emotional regulation. CM exerts a positive influence on convergent thinking, primarily by focused attentional states and top-down executive control; MM induces defocused attentional states, and promotes the enhancement of cognitive flexibility and positive emotions, which contributes to divergent thinking. However, these explanations are mainly based on behavior research and theoretical discussion, which requires to deepen the brain mechanism of the effect of meditation on creativity. Furthermore, future studies should also strengthen the integration of various types of meditation and creative thinking, focusing on individual differences among meditators and comparing with other interventions. Related Articles | Metrics

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The System of “Pa?ca-skandha”in Buddhism——A New Model of Information Processing 2018, 41(5): 1268-1273.  Abstract ( )   PDF (400KB) ( )   In Chinese traditional culture,cognitive psychology is not widely studied.Rather,the majority Chinese psychology studies tend to map some similar theories to the existing western psychology doctrines.Or,these studies in China focus on the mere notion of morality without addressing the more appropriate information processing theory.However, one can always turn to Buddhism—an important part of Chinese traditional culture—for theoretical reference regarding the mechanism of information processing.Pa?ca-skandha—the classic Buddhist doctrine,provides a new model upon which the information processing mechanism in Buddhism will be further discussed. The study is based on the Buddhist scripture like Abhidarmakosa-Sastra, Vij?āptimātratāsiddhi and so on.This study sheds light on the differences between the ways in which Chinese and Western methods are used in studies of cognition. The emphasis of this study is to showcase the characteristics and advantages of applying Buddhist cognitive theories in the study of psychology.Also,a new information processing model will be introduced to provide supplementary aspects to the modern theory of information processing. In Buddhism,information processing system,known as pa?ca-skandha,includes five parts: rūpa-skandha,vedanā-skandaha,samj?ā-skandha,samskāra-skandha, and vij?āna-skandha.1)The system of rūpa-skandha is the interface to input information. rūpa-skandha emphasizes that the physical information must be processed by senses,which in turn provokes psychological meanings. 2)Vedanā-skandaha is the emotional coding system.Vedanā means feelings.So,the collection of feelings is Vedanā-skandaha.It is inevitable that people will generate various kinds of emotions,such as love,hatred and so on when information being processed.In Buddhism,emotional coding is an indispensable component of information processing.3)The system of samj?ā-skandha is to integrate the primary information in the highest level.Getting image is the unique characteristic of Samj?ā-skandha.In this progress,information will be turned into a form of psychological representations or abstract symbols.The system of samj?ā-skandha covers the vast majority of cognitive processes.Concepts and languages are also formed in this system.But some conceptual notions like judgment,reasoning and analysis are not included in this system.4)The system of samskāra-skandha is the dynamic system in information processing.In Buddhism, the effective use and application of psychological dynamic system is significant, the reason being that samskara-skandha can maximize level of both the initiative and the autonomy of cognition.Concluded,this system provides energy and gives directions in processing information.5)The system of vij?āna-skandha is the monitoring system, and it is the most advanced system in five skandhas. The first four skandhas are all controlled by vij?āna-skandha, which has three main functions: information identification, information storage, and monitoring. Information output is the terminal. Storage and monitoring are supportive functions. These three functions work together to render the cognitive judgment. The information-processing model of pa?ca-skandha in this study not only explains the complete progress of information processing,but also presents the characteristics of Chinese cognitive psychology.The western cognitive psychology emphasizes on cold cognition,which differs from the model of Pa?ca-skandha.The pure cognition is not believed to exist in Buddhism.The nature of cognition is rather a progress,in which cognition is inevitably and closely related with emotion.Moreover,the aim of analysis for ego in pa?ca-skandha is to break egocentrism,which also can break the hinder that egocentrism brings to information processing,after which people can get the Buddhist wisdom.And it is very enlightening in the study of self-conscious in the field of artificial intelligence. Related Articles | Metrics

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Harmonious Combination of Anxiety and Pleasure: the Core Characteristic of the Thought of Anxiety and Pleasure in Confucianism Zhi-Qiang GAO 2018, 41(5): 1274-1279.  Abstract ( )   PDF (363KB) ( )   Xu Fuguan (2014) claimed that the core characteristic of Chinese culture is "the awareness of anxiety", while Li Zehou (2011) contended that is "the culture of pleasure". Ignoring the apparent antagonism of these two theories, it can be found that anxiety and pleasure, two of the main forms of human emotion existence, have been promoted to the height of the core characteristic of Chinese culture. Therefore, to figure out whether the core characteristic of Chinese culture is anxiety, pleasure or even harmonious combination of both, it has become a topic worthy of further and systematic study. Confucianism attaches great importance to human emotion existence, thus these two emotions –– anxiety and pleasure have been systematically and profoundly observed. From the perspective of Confucianism, anxiety can be categorized into perceptual anxiety and moral anxiety; moral anxiety can be divided into anxiety of inner sagelihood and anxiety of external kingliness; in addition, anxiety of external kingliness can be further subdivided into anxiety of serving parents and anxiety of the world. Similar to the classification of anxiety, pleasure can be also categorized into perpetual pleasure and moral pleasure while moral pleasure can be divided into pleasure of inner sagelihood and pleasure of external kingliness. In addition, pleasure of external kingliness can be further subdivided into the following six types: pleasure of family and kinship, pleasure of mentorship and friendship, pleasure of rites and music, pleasure of sharing with people, pleasure of landscape Bi-de, pleasure of harmony between man and nature. The distinction between the forms of anxiety and pleasure is an important and helpful perspective to study on the thought of anxiety and pleasure in Confucianism.The fundamental form of the anxiety and pleasure of Confucianism is the form of moral anxiety and pleasure, which based on the inner morality of human. Confucianism affirms the natural rationality of perpetual anxiety and pleasure while it insists that they depend on external existence. When drowning in perpetual anxiety and pleasure, people will easily be controlled by environment, and enslaved by material, which tends to cause alienation spiritually. Confucianism takes moral anxiety as the internal motivation of virtual cultivation. Moral pleasure springs up naturally in the process of moral cultivation, which can govern and transcend perpetual anxiety and pleasure, and finally achieve the harmonious combination of anxiety and pleasure. Shaped by Confucianism, harmonious combination of anxiety and pleasure is the core characteristic of Chinese cultural psychological structure. The inherent logic, achieving the state of harmonious combination of anxiety and pleasure that constructed by Confucianism can be concluded as the following four dimensions: "the way of variation", "submitting to the will of Heaven and being content with one's lot", "pleasure of Confucius and his disciple Yan Hui", and "being too elated to worry". The study on the thought of anxiety and pleasure in Confucianism is a significant approach to explore the ideological roots of Chinese emotional life style and cultural psychological structure. It is also a valuable approach to launch the studies of psychology of emotion and mental health from cultural perspective, and can contribute chinese traditional culture wisdom to the studies of contemporary psychology of emotion and mental health. Related Articles | Metrics

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Thoughts on Construction of Public Psychological Services in China Xiao-Kang Lu Xian JianWang 2018, 41(5): 1026-1030.  Abstract ( )   PDF (298KB) ( )   A more accurate name for the social psychological services system should be the public psychological services system, which consists of three major modules: psychological health services, social mentality cultivation, and communal identity construction. Psychological health services refer to the use of psychological and medical theories and methods to prevent or reduce various psychological and behavioral problems, promote mental health, and improve the quality of life. These mainly include the popularization and education of psychological health, psychological counseling, psychological disease treatment, psychological crisis intervention, etc. The task of social mentality cultivation is to cultivate self-esteem, self-confidence, rationality, composure, and optimism among our people. And the goal of communal identity construction can be divided into two levels: Internally, we must fully shape a unified cultural identity of the Chinese nation, enhance cultural confidence, so as to pool the cultural psychological power for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation; externally, we must work hard to build a communal identity of human destiny, provide Chinese wisdom and China’s confidence in solving common problems facing human society, and gradually form China’s world-wide influence, charisma, and shaping force. When the contents and objectives of the three major modules of the social psychological services system are clarified, the corresponding system of the disciplines is also faced with the process of reconstruction or creation. To train socially-needed professional talents for the building of the social psychological services system requires the establishment of three basic disciplines with Chinese characteristics, namely the discipline of health psychology, social psychology, and cultural psychology. The establishment of an effective social psychological services system requires a variety of measures. First, in terms of top-level design, it is recommended that national and local health commissions should take the lead and that ministries such as the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security, and other relevant local departments should participate in the launch of the strategic goals and overall planning of the social psychological services system. Second, we must vigorously develop a group of relevant disciplines represented by health psychology, social psychology, and cultural psychology with Chinese characteristics, and cultivate research and practical talents related to social psychological services. In this respect, what should be particularly highlighted is research, practice, and talents cultivation in the areas of community psychology, policy psychology, big data and cyber-psychology. Third, we must strengthen basic research and scientific popularization of social psychology. The Chinese Psychological Society, the Chinese Association of Social Psychology, and the Chinese Association for Mental Health can coordinate to build a specialized force, actively use big data technology and traditional survey and measurement techniques to form a national social mentality database and a national psychological health database, and then provide data support for the dynamic changes of social mentality and psychological health. Fourth, we must expand horizontal resources and mobilize social forces to participate in the construction of the social psychological services system. A linkage mechanism should be established, with governments at all levels and relevant administrative departments being the lead, professional organizations such as Chinese Psychological Society being the support, and social psychological professionals being the participants. In this way, we hope to build a professional, multi-typed, multi-leveled, and sustainable social psychological services system that can meet China’s national conditions. Related Articles | Metrics