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Cognitive Resources: A New Perspective to Explain Social Facilitation 2021, 44(5): 1049-1056.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Social facilitation refers to the phenomenon of the increase in the level of action due to the presence of others. This is an ancient psychological effect. The earliest experiments by social psychologists found that when faced with a living opponent, the children turned the fishing axis faster; the results achieved by the cyclists in the competition were better. Subsequent studies have yielded similar results, and social psychologists have realized that only the existence of others has a purely impact on behavior. This discovery has accelerated the development of research. The social facilitation applies to a wide range of species (rats, cats, enough, chickens, humans, etc.) and a variety of behaviors (replication, memory, running, etc.); however, as research develops, researchers find others present in the presence of individuals behavior has a hindrance. For example, in a Harvard study, undergraduates showed worse performance in difficult tasks when working with others. After years of exploration, Zajonc proposed the Hull-spence drive theory on the basis of these contradictions. According to Zajonc, the social environment promoted the driving, and the driving strengthened the dominant response, but weakened the subordinate response. The study combines the Hull-spence drive theory and the distraction-conflict theory to propose a new perspective to explain the social facilitation: the degree of cognitive resources invested by individuals in the current task is an important cause of individual behavioral differences. The study emphasizes the relationship between cognitive resource distribution and individual behavior. A large number of studies have carried out similar studies, such as decreased driver concentration after fatigue driving, resulting in reduced ability to deal with unconventional and emergency situations; in VR learning, Those with high spatial capacity have more cognitive resources and better learning tests. Based on the research basis of attention and behavior, the research proposes the following conjectures: when the current task requires less cognitive resources, the individual has redundant cognitive resources available for deployment, and others present to encourage individuals to invest more cognitive resources into the current situation. In the task, the task effect is improved; when the current task requires more cognitive resources, the individual cognition is close to full load, and the presence of others can not only promote the individual to invest more cognitive resources on the task, but instead generate distraction and reduce the task. effect. Whether it is the presence of others to strengthen dominant behavior, weaken subordinate behavior or strengthen simple behavior, weaken complex behaviors, ignore the influence of individual attention on behavior, and neglect the individual's cognitive full load is difficult to further enhance the effect. Adopting this view is a good explanation for the problems that traditional theory is difficult to explain: performers (pianists, reciters) are more likely to make mistakes on the stage, although these behaviors are dominant for performers, but these actions cost them. A lot of cognitive resources, so the stage effect will have a negative effect. The results show that: (1) behavioral data conforms to the Hull-spence drive theory hypothesis. (2) The simple task group induces a higher N1 amplitude than the complex task group. (3) Under simple tasks, someone were present to induce higher N1 amplitudes; under complex tasks, there was no significant difference between N1 and N1 induced by unmanned groups. The results show that the individual's cognitive resources for task input is an important cause of behavioral differences in the group environment. Research provides a new perspective for the study of social facilitation. Related Articles | Metrics

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Female is more sensitive to opponent's emotional feedbacks: Evidence from subliminal emotional feedback 2021, 44(5): 1026-1034.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Previous reasearch revealed that angry expressions from opponents inversed the differentiation pattern of FRN and diminished feedback P300 difference associated with losses and wins, Moreover, the modulation effect of angry feedback on outcome processing was more salient in females (Chen et al., 2017). But this finding was limited in the effects of supraliminal emotional feedback on outcome processing. In this research, we try to explore whether subliminal emotion feedback can also moderate the monetary outcome processing, and its gender difference.e participants were told that they would play as competitors in a gambling games, that is to say, a loss by the participant means a win by his or her opponent in the same amount, and vice versa. T -hey were told that the computer would determine performer and observer, while the performer made the choice, the observer gave the feedback after seeing the choice. A base payment of ￥40 was given to every participant for gambling. Participants were told that additional rewards or punishments were given based on their performances. The actual earnings for the participants ranges from ￥30 to ￥50. We used an interpersonal gambling game adapted from Gehring and Willoughby gambling task (Gehring & Willoughby, 2002) with detail procedure as follows: after a fixation period(500ms-800ms), the participants were told that the computer would randomly select the performer and the observer in each round of gambling. The person selected as the performer would view numeral 10 or 50 (cents), and make a choice by pressing the corresponding button as soon as possible. The choice was presented for 300ms with the rectangle compassed the choice becoming red. The participants were not told about their opponents’ emotion feedbacks, which were presented along with utilitarian cues for 16 ms on the forehead of the observer, and then changed to neutral face with utilitarian cues for 1000 ms. Likewise, the participants were required to send utilitarian cues on the forehead of their neutral faces, the “＋” on the forehead of the observer indicated that the performer won the points whereas a “－” lost the points,if they were chosen as observer. After the task, the participants were asked whether they could see emotional facial expressions. Nobody reported seeing emotional faces during the experiments. The whole experiment consisted of 384 trials divided into 8 blocks. In each block, the participant was selected as performer two thirds of the trials, while the confederate was selected as performer the remaining third. The behavior data showed the participants selected more high-risk options after losses (.59 ± .04) than after wins (.42 ± .03), [F(1,33) = 32.55, p＜.001, n_p^2=.50]. However, no significant main effect of emotion or any interaction involving emotion was observed [Fs(1, 33)＞2.71, p=.11] (See Figure 4 A). The analysis on reaction times showed a significant interactions of emotion×outcome valence [F(1,33) = 4.25, p＜.05, n_p^2=.11]. Simple effect analysis indicated that the reaction times were significantly longer after wins (841±32 ms) than after losses (793±29 ms, p<.05) when accompanied by angry expressions. But no significant difference was observed after wins (823±28 ms) and losses (821± 31 ms, p = .95) when accompanied by happy expressions (See Figure 4 b). The analysis of FRN amplitudes showed a main effect of outcome (lossee: 4.13±0.81μV,wins: 4.85±0.94μV, F(1,33)=7.74, p＜0.01, η2p=0.19), a marginal significant interaction of emotion×gender [F(1,33)=3.13, p=0.08, η2p =0.09]. Simple effects analysis indicated that FRN amplitudes were more negative for angry feedbacks (4.41±1.20μV) than for happy feedbacks (5.02±1.24 μV, p=0.03) in females, but no significant difference between angry (4.30±1.23) and happy (4.23±1.28 μV, p=.79) feedbacks in males. In P300, there was a significant main effect of outcome valence [F(1,33) = 20.9, p＜0.001, η2p =0.39], with larger P300 for wins (9.38±0.61μV) than losses (8.04±0.57 μV), a marginal significant interaction of outcome×gender [F(1,33) =3.30, p=0.07, η2p=0.09], Simple effects analysis indicated that P300 amplitudes were more positive for wins (10.79±0.84 μV)than for losses (8.91±0.80 μV, p<0.001) in females, but only marginal significant difference between wins (7.98±0.87 μV)and losse (7.17±0.82 μV, p=.06) feedbacks in males. Our study suggests that the subliminal emotional feedback may also influence the decision-making behavior and feedback processing of individuals, this effect mainly displays in the early phase of feedback processing which appraising motivtional significance of feedbacks autonomically, and impact on women more intensely. Related Articles | Metrics

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Understanding the creative cognitive mechanism based on semantic network: status and prospects. 2021, 44(5): 1104-1110.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Semantic network is a pivotal representation of semantic memory structure or conceptual system. It enables researchers to examine the theories of creative process in an operable and quantifiable manner. Given the role of?semantic memory?in creativity has been highlighted, it is of great importance to study the cognitive mechanisms underlying creative process from the semantic network perspective. Accordingly, first, this paper summarizes the theoretical reflection as well as the research?status of how semantic network plays a role in creative process.?Then, the future directions in understanding the cognitive mechanisms of creative process through semantic network would be discussed. Theoretically, the concepts encoded in the semantic network can be regarded as the “raw materials”, which are necessary for the creative thinking. On the one hand, the organizational structure of semantic network directly determines the connection characteristics of concepts in a bottom-up way. Individuals with higher creativity level are believed to store richer concepts in their semantic memory, and at the same time, have more diverse and flexible connections among these concepts. On the other hand, the related cognitive processes (e.g., controlled retrieval) over the concepts affect individual’s creative performance from top to bottom. The more effective the memory retrieval and executive control could be, the higher the creativity level is. Simultaneously, the semantic memory is not only a static storage system, but could also undergo structural adjustment based on external?environment, which precisely meets the need of flexibility and originality for creative process. Practically, the evolving network science methods in recent years provide powerful methodology framework and quantitative tools for creativity research, allowing researchers to explore the internal relationship between semantic network and creativity from the perspective of semantic network structure and related cognitive processing. At present, the empirical studies mainly focus on how semantic network structure affects creativity in group level. Related studies portrayed the structural?characteristics of semantic network either by graph theory metrics or by simulating the uncontrolled search processes over a specific network structure. Except that, another research orientation tends to focus on how different concepts stored in the semantic network could be connected to each other under the intervention of different mental operations. This research orientation essentially regards the concepts as the objects, while the connections between them as the consequences of creative processing. Although previous studies have highlighted the significance of semantic network structures and related mental operations in creative thinking, so far, the above two aspects are relatively separated embodied in different studies, leading to a failure of illustrating how they interactively contribute to creativity. In particular, there is still a lack of studies combining neuroscience techniques to provide evidence for the neural substrate underlying their neural instantiation. Therefore, the future studies should concern more about how to explore the relationship between creativity and semantic network in a relatively integrated cognitive processing framework, and simultaneously, apply tools from neuroimaging technologies, allowing this framework can be well compatible with neuroscience. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of regulatory mode on choice overload and its mechanism 2021, 44(5): 1057-1063.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Choice overload has long been a controversial topic in consumer psychology. While some researchers argue that larger assortment sets benefit consumers, some have argued that large assortments lead to choice overload (i.e. decreased satisfaction). A meta-analysis found that the average effect size for studies supporting the desirability of large assortments was equal to the average effect size for studies finding choice overload. Further, the meta-analysis could account for only 56 percent of the effect size variance, suggesting that there is still significant variance left unexplained. Building on these findings, many scholars have argued for a need to focus on when choice overload occurs, rather than whether it occurs. Consistent with those calls, a number of researchers have since identified moderators, such as option attractiveness, time pressure, product type, construal level etc. Among these factors, also including individual difference moderators. For instance, previous research showed that compared to satisficers, maximizers were more susceptible to choice overload. Additionally, compared to analytic thinking, participants with holistic thinking were less susceptible to choice overload. As an important individual difference variable, we want to know whether regulatory mode can be a boundary condition to moderate the effect of choice overload. Thus, the purpose of the present research is to explore the moderating effect of regulatory mode on choice overload based on regulatory mode theory, by using two different indicators of choice overload, and two manipulating methods of regulatory mode. The present study included two experiments. The first experiment employed 2(regulatory mode: assessment/locomotion) × 2(assortment size: large/small) between subjects design, used RMQ to measure regulatory mode, and took decision regret as dependent variable of choice overload. The participants were asked to complete RMS, and were distributed into large or small size condition, then, they were required to make choices of sweet flavours. The second experiment also employed 2(regulatory mode: assessment/locomotion) × 2(assortment size: large/small) between subjects design, differently, we used priming task to manipulate regulatory mode, and took choice deferral as dependent variable of choice overload. The participants were asked to complete priming task about regulatory mode, and were required to make choices of shoe styles. Results from the first experiment indicated that regulatory mode moderated the relationship between assortment size and decision regret. Specifically, assessors experienced more decision regret in the large rather than small size. In other words, they showed choice overload effect; however, for locomotors, there existed no differences on regret. The second experiment demonstrated that regulatory mode moderated the relationship between assortment size and choice deferral. Specifically, assessors were more inclined to defer their choices in the large rather than small size. In other words, they showed choice overload effect; however, for locomotors, there existed no differences on choice deferral. Further analysis based on mediated moderation showed that decision difficulty played a mediating role in this effect. These results suggested that regulatory mode moderated the effect of choice overload. Regulatory mode appeared to be an important boundary condition of choice overload effects, specifically, compared to locomotors, assessors exhibited choice overload effect. Moreover, based on mediated moderation, we found that decision difficulty could partly explain above effects. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Icon Semantic Distance on Working Memory of Radar Interface Information under Different Time Pressures 2021, 44(5): 1073-1080.  Abstract ( )   PDF   At present, the information transmission of human-computer interface relies more and more on the visual information in which the icon plays an important role as the carrier of information transmission. The design of radar interface icon will affect pilots' memory about interface information, which even cause the loss of situation awareness of pilots. However, in the current radar interface, weak semantic icons are used more frequently. Meanwhile, previous researches on icons do not consider the time pressure. Therefore, we want to explore the effect of icon semantic distance on working memory information extraction of radar interface under different time pressures. In this study, We designed two experiments to explore the above problems. Experiment 1 was conducted under no time pressure, we adopted 2 (icon semantic distance: weak semantic icon, strong semantic icon) × 5 (number of targets: 2,3,4,5,6) × 3 (target type: enemy aircraft, friendly aircraft, unidentified flying objects) within-subjects design. In experiment 1, subjects need to observe pictures to make corresponding responses, such as answering questions by pressing the key. Each picture presented 4 times, and each participant completed 120 trails in total. The eprime2.0 recorded the accuracy and reaction time of responses. In Experiment 2, in order to control the time pressure, the time for the participants to remember pictures was limited, which was half that of experiment 1. Other processes were the same as experiment 1.The number of participants was the same in the two experiments. After repeated measurement analysis of variance, the results showed that the response of strong semantic icon is faster than that of weak semantic icon only under time pressure[F(1,23)=6.90,p=.015,η2=.23]. The advantage of strong semantic icon under time pressure is also reflected in the accuracy of memory[F(1,23)=16.01,p=.001,η2=.41]. When the number of target is 3, the reaction is fastest and more accurate. At the same time, the response of enemy aircraft is longer than that of the friend aircraft and unidentified flying objects. According to the results of Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, we explored the role of time pressure which as the between subject variable. Repeated measurement analysis of variance was used to analyze the data of Experiment 1 and Experiment 2. We found that the interaction between icon semantic distance and time pressure is significant in the accuracy of question answer, but marginal significance in response time. In conclusion, working memory information extraction was used to explore the influence of icon semantic distance on radar interface information under different time pressures in this research. The results showed that strong semantic icon was easier to memory than weak semantic icon in radar interface under time pressure. Therefore, it is suggested that the icon design of radar interface should consider the icon semantic distance in the case of the same complexity and familiarity. At the same time, the interface information should not present too much content, which is better for pilots to recall the important information. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Time Course of Knowledge Integration: An ERP Study 2021, 44(5): 1089-1096.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Building a knowledge base is one of the most important tasks in development. New content can be entered into semantic memory not only through direct experience (e.g., explicit instruction, observation), but also through self-generation resulting from a number of logical processes, including deduction, induction, and analogy. Another means of extension of semantic memory is self-generation of new knowledge through integration of information acquired in two (or more) separate yet related learning episodes. Previous studies mainly investigated knowledge extended through integration remains accessible after delay, little is known about the time course over which newly self-derived information through integration and the effects of prior knowledge on undergraduate students’ self-generation newly knowledge through integration. The present study aimed to examine the cognitive processing and the time course of self-generated through integration of separate but related facts pair by using the event-related potentials (ERPs) technique of high temporal resolution and to the status of semantic knowledge. Considering the role of prior knowledge experience, this study distinguishes knowledge integration into instant integration and delayed integration. There were five categories of sentences in experiment: (a) well-known facts; (b) derived new facts through integration of separate immediate stem facts presented during encoding; (c) derived new facts through integration of separate delayed stem facts presented during encoding; (d) derived inference facts through transitive facts presented during encoding; (e)novel control facts unrelated to any previously encountered. At the encoding task, subjects read each of 180 sentences presented on a computer, then judged when in school the facts in the sentences should be learned: primary, middle school, or college. After a break of 5 minutes, participants were tested generation of new information through integration of the previously presented stem facts during encoding. ERPs were collected as subjects read each of 100 sentences. To permit observation of anticipated change over time in the neural status of the self-derived information, each sentence was presented twice. On the behavioral level, we found that the main effect of the number of presentations is significant, and the average reaction time of all fact types on the second presentation is significantly faster than the first presentation; the main effect of fact type is also significant. The response time of well-known facts is significantly faster than that of immediate integration, delayed integration and novel facts. On the ERP level, N400 responses to integration facts differed from responses to transitive reasoning facts and novel facts, and did not differ from responses to well-known facts, suggesting that the newly self-derived newly information through integration had been incorporated into the semantic knowledge base. In addition, from the analysis results of time course, we also found that during the second presentation, the amplitude of the delayed integration facts decreased and moved closer to the well-known facts, indicating that through integration of separate delayed stem facts had been occurred later. Combined with behavioral and ERP findings, these results showed that the time course of self-generated new knowledge through integration of separate but related facts pair and the prior knowledge experience does have an impact on integration performance. The results indicate that self-derived newly information through integration can be incorporated into the semantic knowledge base and knowledge experience will affect the time course of integration. The finding helps explain the richness of semantic memory and also further our understanding of the basic cognitive processes involved in extension of knowledge. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Saccade Launch Site on Preview Processing During Reading Chinese 2021, 44(5): 1081-1088.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Readers obtain information from the word to the right of fixation and this effect was named preview benefit. Previous studies have indicated that the closer the launch site to the target word, the greater the preview benefit from the target word was observed (Briihl & Inhoff, 1995; McDonald, 2006; Rayner, McConkie, & Zola, 1980). Further, Kliegl, Hohenstein, Yan and Mcdonald (2012) reanalyzed McDonald's (2006) data and found that preview effects, which are typically summarized as “preview benefit”, were a complex mixture of preview cost and preview benefit. They suggested that the decrease in fixation time under the identical preview conditions was caused by the facilitation of processing, which belonged to "preview benefit"; and the increase in fixation time under the different preview conditions was due to interruption of invalid information and thus belonged to "preview cost". The current study was set up to examine the effect of saccade launch site on preview processing and discriminate the preview benefit and preview cost during reading of Chinese. Different from the previous studies that launch site was not experimentally controlled and its effect was evaluated by covariate analyses, the current experiment manipulated the position of the target word in the sentence and thus the launch site of the saccade to the target word. This is because the average saccade length of Chinese readers is 2-3 Chinese characters (Inhoff, 1998), when the target word is the fourth word and the fifth character (two-character word) in the sentence, it is very likely that the fixation to the target word was launched from the 3rd character. We referred this situation as launch site from a “short distance” condition. In contrast, we added 3-5 characters to the beginning of these sentences and pushed the target words further away from the sentence beginning. As the distance between the sentence beginning and the target word position became larger, the launch site to the target word could not be systematically close to the target word. For comparison, we referred this situation as launch site from a “long distance” condition. Another factor in the experiment was preview condition, including identical (to the target word) and different (from the target word) previews. The main result suggested that the preview effect, which was reflected by the difference between the identical and the different preview condition on the target word, was larger in gaze duration and go-past time when the saccade to the target word was launched from a long distance, as compared from a short distance. A further analysis indicated that the nature of these preview effect was actually a preview cost as the different preview brought larger difficulties in the long distance condition. It is worth noting that the preview effects, which are typically referred as "preview benefit", are actually a complex mixture of preview cost and preview benefit in reading Chinese. The current experiment helps people to understand the two kinds of preview effects and also factors may influence them. Related Articles | Metrics

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An Experimental Study on Phoneme Identification in Chinese Disyllable Words of the Deaf 2021, 44(5): 1042-1048.  Abstract ( )   PDF   A modified version of the dual-route cascaded (DRC) model argued that the deaf adults access phonology of printed words indirectly through orthographic, such as fingerspelling, or speech-reading routes. Precisely, researches from alphabetic language found the congenital deaf could recode printed words based on the handshape-letter correspondence rule (i.e. visual phoneme awareness). For the hearing, a phoneme position effect was evident in both English (the first phoneme advantage) and Chinese (the first consonant/Shengmu advantage) written words. In line with which, a Shengmu advantage in deaf was found in single Chinese character. However, there has been no evidence so far proving a Shengmu advantage as the same in Chinese disyllable words, so as its causes. A phoneme identification experiment was conducted to investigate whether there would be a similar phoneme position effect (i.e. consonant/Shengmu recognition advantage) in Chinese disyllable words of the deaf, which would be helpful to reveal the mechanism of deaf adults’ phoneme encoding. 64 high-school students with severe hearing loss (>90dB) participated the experiment but with 4 students missed. After a practice session, participants entered the task (192 Chinese disyllable words in total) in which they were asked to judge whether a disyllable word contain the consonant/vowel phoneme or not. No feedback was given during the task. The present study consisted of two parts. Specifically, a two-factor within group design of 2(phoneme type: consonant/Shengmu, vowel/Yunmu) *2(phonological code type: fingerspelling, letter) was conducted at the first to investigate the initial consonant/Shengmu recognition advantage and the influence of phonological codes. On the basis of which, a two-factor within group design of 2 (phoneme type: consonant/Shengmu, vowel/Yunmu) *2(morpheme position: beginning character, end character) was conducted to further explore the influence of morpheme position on the consonant/Shengmu recognition advantage in Chinese disyllable words. The results indicated that: 1) the performance of consonants was more accurate and faster than vowels in disyllable words, revealing a consonant recognition advantage of the deaf. 2) fingerspelling and visual letter were both used by the deaf to encode phonology in printed words while fingerspelling code was less effective, in addition, the initial consonant recognition advantage was independent of two types of phonological codes. 3) a significant morpheme position effect was found in disyllable words, i.e. the phoneme recognition accuracy was higher and the speed faster for the beginning character than the end character in Chinese compound words; further, the performance for the consonant/Shengmu of first character in compound word was significantly better than all other phonemes, both indicating that for deaf students, not only syllables in compound word but also phonemes within a syllable were both serially, from left to right, encoded. In conclude, the findings thus indicated that there was a significant Shengmu recognition advantage in disyllable word of the deaf, jointly influenced by fingerspelling and the serial phoneme encoding. The findings of the present study will not only improve our understanding of the phenetic encoding mechanism in printed Chinese words, but also provide insights to the language instruction for the deaf. Related Articles | Metrics

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Sensorimotor Experience Affects the Formation of Mental Timeline:The Evidence from Blind 2021, 44(5): 1064-1072.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Sensorimotor experience is the basis and key to connect time and space. Reading order and writing habits directly affect the orientation of mental timelines and play a decisive role in the horizontal mental timelines. This study aimed to investigate how sensorimotor experiences such as visual and reading habits affect the formation of mental time in the blind. In experiment 1 and 2 we used the phrases in a day such as “read a bed time story” as stimuli. Both sighted and blind students in the third grade of primary school were taken as participants. In each trial, words were presented in both the left and right ear at the same time. There were four blocks for each participant. In block 1, if the stimulus was earlier than noon, participants pressed the “D” key. And if it was later than noon, they pressed the “K” key. In block 2, the rules for keystrokes were reversed. The rules of the first two and the latter two blocks were conterbalanced among the participants. In experiment 3 and 4 we used words describing time such as “morning” or “past” as stimuli. The participants were recruited from first-year junior high school. The experiment 1 showed that sighted students react fast in the “early-left, late-right” rule, indicating the left-right mental time line had occurred. However, there was no difference between early stimuli with left response and late stimuli with right response. The results of experiment 2 produced similar results. In experiment 3 and 4, we found both the sighted and blind students of first-year junior high school demonstrated an early-left, late-right mental time line, and the response time of the blind were longer. For the blind, no time-space consistency was found in the third grade of primary school, indicating that visual experience plays a foundational role in the formation of mental timeline, at least in the early stages of life. Reading training may play a decisive role in shaping the direction of mental timelines. The blind need to experience a certain period of reading and other trainings can compensate for the lack of information in the visual channel. On the whole, this study show that visual perception is the basis of mental time line, and reading experience and writing training directly affect the formation of mental time line. In the different stages of psychological development, different factors affect development of mental timeline. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the embodied dynamic Simulation process of negative affective words 2021, 44(5): 1035-1041.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Embodied Cognitive Theories assumed that cognition, language and thought were rooted in perception and action. According to the Embodiment Theories, negation is an abstract concept, represented by the time consumption or the transformation of space trajectory embodiedly, the negation processes were the dynamic perceptual simulation. The Two-Step Simulation Hypothesis assumed that the negative processing is dynamic processes, the negated state of the event were simulated at first, then the attention were transferred to the actual state of the event. In another words, the representation of negation was represented by time consuming in transition between two event states. Recent studies had found that negation played a different role in regulation of positive and negative emotions. Some researches had shown that negation could regulate the response to negative emotion effectively, but no significant effect on positive emotion regultation. However, existing studies had demonstrated positive emotions had its “positive bias” compared with negative emotions. Our primary purpose was to explore the effects of negation on the dimension of valence and motivation of emotional words, and whether the negation processes was in line with the Two-Step Simulation Hypothesis of Negation. In experiment 1, word-picture matching paradigm was adopted as experimental paradigm, in which Not / (positive) + emotional words as language materials and positive and negative emoticons as picture materials, and two ISIs (250ms and 1000ms) were used to detect early stage and middle-late stage of negation. Participants were asked to judged the emoticon were happy or not. All the experiment materials were estimated by the participants who would not participated the formal experiment in order to ensure that materials were coherent and understandable. The results showed negated emotional words have a significant effect on the valence of emotion significantly. Negation has an influence on the embodied representation of emotional word processing. In experiment 2, the emotional words expressing anger and sadness with equivalent valence were selected as experimental materials to explore the effect of negation on the processing of emotional motivation by the paradigm of approach-avoidance action direction. The same two ISIs was adopted as Experiment 1. Experiment materials were estimated by participants who didn’t participate Experiment 1 and 2 to ensure that materials were coherent and understandable. The results confirmed that negation affected emotional words’ motivational direction processing, but differed between anger and sadness during different processing stages. The results didn’t match the Two-Step Simulation Hypothesis of Negation. These results suggest that negation processes may have a unique processing mechanism, which may not be explained simply by neither two-step simulation nor one-step. That means that there are some limitations in the Two-Step Simulation Hypothesis of Negation and some correction should be mended. In addition, this study only discusses the processing of emotional valence and emotional motivation expressing anger and sadness with equivalent valence. There is arousal level of emotion besides valence and motivation in emotional dimensions which has not been discussed in this study. The study is potentially valuable in domain of negation processes research. Related Articles | Metrics

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Impact of shyness on middle and upper-grade students’ academic help-seeking in primary school: A moderated mediation 2021, 44(5): 1126-1133.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Students inevitably encounter problems that they cannot solve independently in the process of learning. This is especially true for primary school students, whose learning ability is not fully developed. Educational psychologists believe that academic help-seeking, an adaptive self-regulation strategy that can make comprehensive use of human resources in the classroom, is important to students’ academic development and personal growth. However, shy individuals may feel too embarrassed to communicate with others, and a timid personality may be a key reason why some primary school students avoid academic help-seeking. The present study introduced personality-variable shyness to examine the relationship between shyness and academic help-seeking and further explore the roles of self-esteem and the classroom environment to enrich theoretical research on academic help-seeking. Through convenience cluster sampling, 936 students in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades from two primary schools in Jinan were selected as participants. The shyness scale, self-esteem scale, classroom environment scale, and academic help-seeking behavior scale were adopted as research tools to shed light on the current status of academic help-seeking among students at these schools in middle and upper grades and its relationship with shyness, self-esteem, and the class environment. The results revealed the following. (1) Shyness can positively predict executive help-seeking and avoidant help-seeking behavior (β = 0.30, p < 0.001, β = 0.44, p < 0.001) and negatively predict instrumental help-seeking behavior (teachers/classmates) (β = ?0.27, p < 0.001, β = ?0.10, p < 0.01). (2) Self-esteem mediates the relationships between shyness and executive help-seeking, avoidant help-seeking, and instrumental help-seeking behavior (teachers/classmates). (3) The classroom environment moderates the relationships between shyness and self-esteem and between self-esteem and instrumental help-seeking behavior (teachers). By utilizing simple slope analysis, we found that shyness predicts self-esteem slightly better in a good classroom environment than in a bad classroom environment. Regardless of the degree of shyness, the level of self-esteem in a good classroom environment is significantly higher than in a bad classroom environment. Additionally, the positive predictive effect of self-esteem on instrumental help-seeking (teachers) is more significant in a bad classroom environment than in a good classroom environment. Regardless of the degree of self-esteem, instrumental help-seeking (teachers) in a good classroom environment is significantly higher than is instrumental help-seeking (teachers) in a bad classroom environment. The study helps to fill the research regarding the impact mechanism of shyness on academic help-seeking and explores the impact mechanism of shyness on academic help-seeking from both internal and external perspectives. The results indicated that shy pupils use more negative academic help-seeking, driven largely by low self-esteem. It was also revealed that self-esteem is a powerful factor affecting individual behavioral patterns and that the development of self-esteem is closely related to both family and school education. Overall, our results offer targeted education advice for parents and school educators. In addition, a good classroom environment helps primary school students to actively seek help. In other words, personal growth and the classroom environment are inextricably linked, with the classroom environment shaping personal qualities and behavioral patterns. This conclusion will hopefully serve as a reminder for educators to pay attention to shy primary school students, foster a good classroom environment, work to enhance their students’ self-esteem, and guide their students to form positive academic help-seeking strategies. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mobile Online Communication and Mobile Phone Addiction among Middle School Students: The Mediating Roles of Social Capital and Relatedness Need Satisfaction. 2021, 44(5): 1119-1125.  Abstract ( )   PDF   With the rapid popularization of smart phones, online communication has become an important way for people to communicate with each other which result in worsening mobile phone addiction. Previous studies have found that online communication, the most frequently used function, is a significant predictor of mobile phone addiction. However, they have not thoroughly explored the influence mechanism. According to the use-gratification theory and self-determination theory, online communication can help individuals build better interpersonal relationships and obtain more social support (in other words, accumulate social capital), so it can meet individual relationship needs and ultimately enhance the tendency of individual mobile phone addiction. In addition, this effect may be different when communicating with different people. The activation hypothesis of network social contact thinks that online communication can increase the contact between individuals and their friends in real life, practice their ability to get along with friends, and thus promote their interpersonal skills in real life. On the contrary, the alternative hypothesis holds that online communication will occupy the time and opportunity to communicate with real friends, thus reducing the quality of friendship with real friends. Previous studies have shown that online communication with acquaintances conforms to activation hypothesis, while online communication with strangers conforms to substitution hypothesis. Such differences may also exist in mobile phone online communication. Only when communicates with acquaintance, mobile phone online communication can accumulate social capital, meet the needs of the relationship, and finally predict mobile phone addiction. On this basis, this study aims to investigate the relationship between mobile phone online communication and mobile phone addiction, and the mediating role of social capital and relatedness need satisfaction. What’s more, this study further discussed the difference of the mediating function between different communicate. We recruited 3500 students from five middle school in Beijing, Hunan province and Fujian Province. Only 3,268 students completed all four self-report questionnaires (response rate was 93.37%). All scales had good reliability and validity. All data were analyzed by the software of Mplus7.0 and SPSS20.0. After controlling for other use of mobile social functions, the results indicated that: (1) mobile phone online communication had direct and positive prediction on mobile phone addiction no matter communicated with strangers or acquaintances; (2) mobile phone online communication predicted mobile phone addiction through relatedness need satisfaction when communicates with strangers indirectly; (3) mobile phone online communication predicted mobile phone addiction through a multiple mediating path from social capital to relatedness need satisfaction indirectly;(4) mobile phone online communication is a significantly better predictor of mobile phone addiction through the multiple mediating path when communicates with acquaintance than stranger. In conclusion, the present study shows that students are addicted to mobile phones because their relationship needs are satisfied through online communication on mobile phones. Although mobile phone online communication can temporarily bring out positive results (accumulated social capital, satisfied the relationship needs). However, the satisfaction of psychological needs obtained through mobile phones cannot solve the problem in real life (e.g., poor relationship). It can also lead to negative consequences ultimately (e.g., phone addiction). Related Articles | Metrics

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The Relationship between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms and Internet Addiction Symptoms in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Sensitivity to Punishment Stimuli and Loneliness and the Moderating Role of Gender 2021, 44(5): 1134-1140.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is considered to be an important psychopathological factor leading to individuals' addictive behaviors. Studies in the adolescent population are limited, though some studies have found that PTSD symptoms had positive effect on Internet addiction symptoms in elementary school and college. However, it is not clear about the mechanisms between PTSD symptoms and Internet addiction symptoms. Some researchers propose that the relationship between psychopathology and Internet addiction should be based on the role of motivation factors related to semotion. The Compensatory Internet Use Theory assumes that after experiencing stressful life events, many people attempt to reduce their resulting negative emotion by engaging in excessive internet use. But more evidences are needed to clarify what are the motivations conjunction with PTSD symptoms and how does these affect the relationship between PTSD symptoms and Internet addiction symptoms, and whether the effecting mechanisms are different in different gender groups. Therefore, Loneliness and sensitivity of punishment stimuli might mediate the relationship between PTSD symptoms and Internet addiction symptoms in post-earthquake adolescents as emotion-related motivational factors. In addition, the mechanism of these factors needed to be explored in different gender groups. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore the role of sensitivity of punishment stimuli and loneliness in the association between PTSD symptoms and internet addiction symptoms among post-earthquake adolescents of different gender 9.5 years after the Wenchuan earthquake. 767 post-earthquake adolescents (337 boys and 430 girls) were selected from 4 middle schools in the county of Wenchuan and Dujiang Dam city, the areas most severely affected by the Wenchuan earthquake. Participants completed the Revised Edition DSM-5 of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder checklist, Behavioral Inhibition System Scale, Loneliness Scale, and the Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale. All the measures showed good reliability and validity in the present study. Data were analyzed using SPSS 21.0 and MPLUS 7.1, which was specifically developed for assessing the complex models including both mediators and moderators with the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method. After controlling age and repeated trauma exposure, the analysis of structural equation model found that PTSD symptoms had a positive effect on Internet addiction symptoms. The indirect effects of PTSD symptoms on internet addiction symptoms through sensitivity of punishment stimuli and loneliness were both significant. Moreover, PTSD symptoms could positively affect internet addiction symptoms by sensitivity of punishment stimuli via the chained mediating effect of loneliness. In the girl group, PTSD symptoms not only had direct effects on internet addiction symptoms, but also had indirect effect on internet addiction symptoms through sensitivity of punishment stimuli and loneliness respectively. However, PTSD symptoms only had direct effect on internet addiction symptoms in boy group. The present study demonstrates the impact of PTSD symptoms on post-earthquake adolescents’ Internet addiction symptoms, as well as the mediating roles of two motivational factors related to emotion (sensitivity to punishment stimuli and loneliness) underlying this relation. The moderating effect of gender in the mediation model is discussed. These findings may contribute to a better understanding of the effects, mechanisms, and the gender differences on internet addiction symptoms among post-earthquake adolescents. The implications of our findings for the intervention of post-earthquake adolescents’ Internet addition symptoms are also discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Influence of perceived personal and group discrimination on academic burnout of Chinese migrant children: the mediating effect of academic self-handicapping and the moderating effect of the identity integration Yu-Han ZHAO 2021, 44(5): 1111-1118.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Academic burnout is a mental sub-health state in the learning process. When students cannot face the pressure of academic, they will feel frustrated, bored, tired, and then escape from study. As bi-cultural individuals in rural and urban areas, Chinese migrant children are under great pressure to integrate into the local environment. Studies have found that perceived personal and group discrimination have a great impact on the academic attitude and behavior of Chinese migrant children. In addition, academic self-handicapping may play a mediating role in the relationship between perceived personal and group discrimination and academic burnout of Chinese migrant children. Academic self-handicapping means students will adopt any behaviors and choices that can attribute failure to external causes to avoid the possibility of negative academic evaluation. When Chinese migrant children perceive discrimination, in order to protect their self-worth, they may adopt self-handicapping strategies to hinder learning, which increase the possibility of grades dropped, reduce the academic self-efficacy, and finally lead to academic burnout. Studies have suggested that a good identity integration has a positive impact on mental health status and social adaptability, and will promote the individual's academic performance. On the contrary, a bad identity integration has a negative impact on academic performance. Therefore, the identity integration may play a protective role in the relationship between perceived personal and group discrimination, academic self-handicapping and academic burnout of Chinese migrant children. In view of the above, this study focuses on the mediating role of academic self-handicapping in the relationship between perceived personal and group discrimination and academic burnout, as well as the moderating role of identity integration. The aim is investigating the influence mechanism between perceived personal and group discrimination and academic burnout, which provides theoretical support for reducing academic burnout of Chinese migrant children, has a great practical significance. In this study, 363 Chinese migrant children in junior middle school were selected as participants. After given informed consents, they completed a series of self-report inventories to measure their perceived personal and group discrimination, academic burnout, academic self-handicapping and integration of bi-cultural identity. Then we used the PROCESS macro for SPSS to examined common method biases, and tested the moderated mediation model. The results indicated that: (1) Perceived personal and group discrimination can significantly positively predict the academic burnout of Chinese migrant children; (2) Academic self-handicapping plays an mediating role in the relationship between perceived personal and group discrimination and academic burnout of Chinese migrant children; (3) Identity integration moderates the effects of perceived discrimination and academic self-handicapping on academic burnout, and for Chinese migrant children with high identity integration, perceived personal discrimination and academic self-handicapping have a greater impact on academic burnout. Although high integration of bi-cultural identity makes Chinese migrant children who perceive personal discrimination and adopt academic self-handicapping strategies feeling more academic burnout, it also makes them attribute adverse outcomes to internal factors that can be changed, which is conducive to personality development. Therefore, educators should actively improve identity integration of migrant children when they feel academic burnout, effecting a permanent cure. Related Articles | Metrics

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Intergenerational transmission of emotional intelligence: Moderated Mediating Effect 2021, 44(5): 1141-1147.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Emotional intelligence refers to the comprehensive ability to perceive, express, manage and use emotions. It is also a rich synthesis of a series of individual emotions, personalities and interpersonal relationships. Previous studies have shown that emotional intelligence is closely related to teenagers' subjective well-being, academic achievement and interpersonal communication, and it has been proven that emotional intelligence can effectively moderate the relationship between risk factors and individual development. Furthermore, studies abroad have shown that there is a certain degree of intergenerational transmission of emotional intelligence. According to the attachment theory, positive parenting can promote secure attachment. Individuals with secure attachment can precisely perceive others' emotions and effectively moderate their own negative emotions, which is conducive to the formation of higher emotional intelligence. Therefore, the first aim of this study is to examine whether parental emotional warmth mediates the intergenerational transmission of emotional intelligence. Lerner’s developmental contextualism suggests that the physical and mental development of an individual is affected by various environments, and each environment does not work independently, but interacts together to play a systematic role in human development. With the increase of age, the impact of peer relationship on teenagers is becoming more crucial than that of family factors. A satisfactory peer relationship is conducive to making teenagers feel supported and more inclined to accept the care and warmth of others. Although the influence of the family environment on adolescents has gradually diminished, it has persisted. The support and encouragement from peers make teenagers more willing to open their hearts to the emotional warmth of their parents, thus promoting their own emotional intelligence development. Therefore, the second aim of this study is to examine the moderating effect of peer relationship between parental emotional warmth and adolescents’ emotional intelligence. In order to investigate the intergenerational transmission effect of parents' emotional intelligence on teenagers' emotional intelligence, and to explore the mediating effect of emotional warmth and the moderating effect of peer relationship, 644 junior high school students and their parents were investigated. Parents reported their own emotional intelligence level, and adolescents reported the level of perceived parental emotional warmth, peer relationship and their own emotional intelligence. The findings are as follows: (1) the emotional intelligence of parents significantly positively predicted adolescents' emotional intelligence. (2) Parental emotional warmth plays a significant mediating role between parental emotional intelligence and adolescent emotional intelligence.(3) Peer relationship plays a moderating role in the relationship between emotional warmth and teenagers’ emotional intelligence. To be specific, compared to individuals with poor peer relationships, emotional warmth has a stronger effect on the emotional intelligence of adolescents with favorable peer relationships. This study innovatively investigated the intergenerational transmission of emotional intelligence and its internal mechanism in the sample of Chinese adolescents. The findings are of great value to reveal the developmental law of adolescent emotional intelligence and have theoretical and practical significance for the cultivation of adolescent emotional intelligence both in family education and school education. However, this study is not without limitations. One limitation is that parenting style is a multi-dimensional variable. This study only examined the positive dimension of emotional warmth. Future studies can comprehensively examine the effect of other dimensions of parenting style on the intergenerational transmission of emotional intelligence. An additional limitation is that the cross-sectional study adopted in this study cannot explain the causal relationship among the variables, longitudinal design can be used in future research to further verify the impact of parental emotional intelligence on adolescent emotional intelligence. Furthermore, as the subjects in this study were selected from two-parent families in Guangzhou, it remains to be further verified whether the findings can be applied to other populations. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effect, Mechanism and future prospect of Exercise in the Treatment of Depression among Adolescents 2021, 44(5): 1208-1215.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As a critical period of develop depressive disorders, the prevention and early intervention of depressive disorders in adolescents is very important, but there are some limitations of drug therapy and psychotherapy. The FDA (Food and Drug Administration) recommended that we should use a black-box warning in antidepressants to show that antidepressants may deteriorating disease and/or increasing suicide risk among patients <24 years old. Moreover, the treatment effect of psychotherapy are limited, the high recurrence rate and high treatment cost reminded that we need identify and evaluate new effective treatment of depression among adolescents. There is growing interest in the potential role of exercise in the reduction of depressive symptoms among adolescents, the advantages of low consumption, time control, harmlessness makes exercise easier to execute. In this paper, we reviewed the researches of the relation between exercise and depression among adolescents which including cross-sectional and longitudinal investigation, as well as experimental intervention. The vast majority of studies agreed that exercise do decrease depressive symptoms among adolescents, but there are also a few studies holding that exercise don’t decrease depressive symptoms among adolescents. In view of the above-mentioned fact, we recommend future research should improve experimental paradigm, and base on clinic research. We also summarized the psychological mechanisms (self-efficiency, self-esteem, distraction) and neurobiological mechanisms (neuroendocrine, neurotrophines, oxidative stress, inflammatory, changes on cortical structure and activity, epigenetics) of exercise influence depression. Unfortunately, these hypothesis are not be proved consistently by empirical studies, some studies’ findings didn’t support these hypothesis. In addition, some researcher argued that there are some different between adult and adolescent of it’s functionary mechanism, so more researches are needed to figure out the mechanism of exercise influence depression. At the end of this article, we analyzed the deficiencies of present researches and the probable direction of future studies. First of all, future study should improve the experimental design, the participants in existing researches including clinical patients, subclinical patients and healthy adolescents, future research should pay special attention to clinical studies and try to figure out if exercise can be used as a effective treatment of depressive disorders. And we must consider the placebo effect in treatment of depression, social contact and abandonment rate of exercise when design experimental paradigm. The exploration of exercise types, exercise intensity and duration is also important. Then, there are few researches on this field in China, future study can combining with Chinese characteristics on the basis of domestic and foreign research to explore whether the traditional exercises in China (Tai Chi, Kungfu and so on) or easy exercises that can be done during class interval could or not influence adolescence’s depression level. Finally, we should be more rigorous and scientific when facing and examining the validity of existing hypothesis, and do our best to figure out the psychological and neurobiological mechanisms of exercise influence depression. All in all, future research could further focus on methodological improvement, and explore the best exercise program of antidepressant and the mechanisms. Remarkably, we should verity whether there truly exists the best exercise type, intensity and duration for decrease depressive symptoms among young, or preferred exercise program for young is better. And for psychological and neurobiological mechanisms, we also should figure out whether these mechanisms work together or work independently, and try to completely understand the mechanism of exercise influence depression. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effects of Different Ethnic Culture on Negative Emotion Regulation: Evidence from ERPs 2021, 44(5): 1201-1207.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Culture has significant influence on various aspects of emotion including cognitive appraisal and expressive suppression. Previous studies found that cognitive reappraisal effectively reduced the negative emotional responding, while the emotion regulation efficiency of expression suppression strategy was controversial in different cultures. Expression suppression usually plays a negative role in individualistic culture, and is not completely an inappropriate regulation strategy in collectivistic culture. It is still unclear whether exists different emotion regulation strategies in different Chinese nationalities. Regulating negative emotion with expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal and discovering the underlying mechanism in the Han and ethnic minority culture populations were therefore of great interest. The current experiment was a 2(ethnic cultures: Han, ethnic minority) × 4(emotion regulation strategies: neutral view, negative view, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression) mixed design. Thirty-two college students (16 were Han and 16 were ethnic minorities) were recruited in the current study. There were 4 blocks which consisted of 2 viewing blocks and 2 regulating blocks, and each block included 60 pictures that were taken from Chinese Affective Picture System (CAPS). In viewing blocks, participants just attended to neutral or negative pictures; whereas, in regulating blocks, participants were instructed to intentionally suppress the expression of emotional responses to pictures or imagine themselves as an objective observer to the situation depicted. Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) were recorded during the presentation of pictures. By the end of each block, subjects were required to rate their mood state and the success of suppressing, reappraising the pictures by a self-report scale. Behavioral results showed a significant difference in the level of self-reported negative emotions among the three strategies (negative view, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression), F(2,60)=174.65，p<.01，η2=.85. The subjective emotional experience of the expression suppression was higher than the cognitive reappraisal. The interaction between ethnic culture and emotion regulation strategy was significant, F(2,60)=8.22，p<.01，η2=.22. The cognitive reappraisal and expression suppression could significantly reduce the negative emotional experience of Han and ethnic minority subjects, while the emotion regulation effect of expressive suppression on ethnic minority subjects was worse than Han. In electrophysiological results, negative emotional pictures induced greater P2 amplitudes than neutral pictures, and expression suppression induced greater P3 amplitudes than cognitive reappraisal in frontal-central. Late Positive Potential (LPP) showed more pronounced amplitudes during expressive suppression relative to cognitive reappraisal. More importantly, there was a significant interaction effect of ethnic culture and emotion regulation strategy in 900~1200ms LPP window, F(3,90)=3.77，p<.05，η2=.12. The cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression significantly reduced the negative emotion-related LPP amplitudes of Han subjects, and regulation effects of two strategies had no significant difference. However, cognitive reappraisal significantly reduced the negative emotion-related LPP amplitudes of ethnic minority subjects, but not expressive suppression. In conclusion, the effect of emotion regulation varies in different ethnic cultures. Individuals with Han culture can effectively reduce negative emotion by using expressive suppression strategy, while individuals with ethnic minority culture are more suitable for cognitive reappraisal strategy to regulate negative emotion. Related Articles | Metrics

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Do Conscientious Leaders Abuse Subordinates? The Role of Environmental Uncertainty and Emotional Exhaustion 2021, 44(5): 1164-1170.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Conscientious individuals tend to be achievement, detail and planning-oriented. Several studies have found a consistent relationship between conscientiousness and overall job performance, leader emergence, and leader effectiveness. Yet, despite these positive connotations, the relationship between leader conscientiousness and abusive supervision remains controversial and empirical studies fail to draw a unanimous conclusion. Several studies argue that conscientious leaders tend to create a fair environment for their employees and engage in ethical leadership behavior. Others argue that the trait of conscientiousness may play a role in the emergence of abusive supervision since conscientious supervisors are highly goal-achievement oriented and may engage in abusive supervision due to performance-driven motives. Failing to figure out the above relationship is detrimental considering that conscientious individuals are more likely to get promoted. Accordingly, our goal in the present research is to shed light on the relationship between leader conscientiousness and abusive supervision in light of existing debates in the personality approach to leadership. We use conservation of resource theory (COR) as an overarching theoretical framework for the current investigation. COR theory is particularly relevant to our investigation because it inherently states what individuals do when confronted with stress and when not confronted with stress, which helps understand the processes and conditions under which conscientious leaders are more likely to abuse subordinates. In line with COR, we propose that the relationship between leader conscientiousness and abusive supervision is conditioned by environmental uncertainty. We also focus on leaders’ feelings of emotional exhaustion, a state reflecting resource depletion, as an immediate consequence of the joint effect of leader conscientiousness and environmental uncertainty. Two-wave data collected from 389 employees and 95 supervisors showed that: Environmental uncertainty moderated the relationship between leader conscientiousness and abusive supervision. Environmental uncertainty can also moderate the relationship between leader conscientiousness and emotional exhaustion. Emotional exhaustion was positively associated with abusive supervision. The indirect effect of leader conscientiousness on abusive supervision via emotional exhaustion was conditional upon environmental uncertainty, such that the indirect effect became increasingly positive as environmental uncertainty increases and increasingly negative as environmental uncertainty decreases. Our research offers three major contributions. Firstly, we extend understandings regarding the previously unclear relationship between leader conscientiousness and abusive supervision. Acknowledging that leader conscientiousness may not have straightforward effects on abusive supervision, we explore the possibility that other factors may condition this relationship. To this end, the second theoretical contribution is that our study answer calls to identify situational factors (i.e., environmental uncertainty) that interact with leader personality to predict both proximal and distal outcomes. Our focus on environmental uncertainty (a boundary condition) and emotional exhaustion (a mediating mechanism) are particularly useful given that popular press attention for both constructs has so far outpaced scholarly investigations. Finally, our study adds to the relatively scant literature examining leader personality as antecedents of abusive supervision and, related, provides needed attention for how intrapersonal factors affect abusive supervision. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Doctor 's Trait Information and Negative Emotion Feedback on Conflict Behavior Ai huaTAO Wang Pei 2021, 44(5): 1171-1178.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The expression of emotions play an important role in conflict resolution. When an event is incongruent with a person’s goals or positive expectancies, negative emotions such as anger and disappointment can arise. At the interpersonal level, expressing anger or disappointment at another’s behavior can thus signal the wish that the other would have behaved differently. Disappointment arises when the progress towards a goal is below expectation or when a desired outcome has not been achieved. Disappointment is associated with a lack of control over the situation and the feeling of weakness. The expression of disappointment thus signals a need for help, without assigning blame or entailing a threat of aggression. Anger is often seen as a destructive emotion, causing aggressive behavior that escalates conflicts. Several recent studies, however, seem to suggest that it can actually have positive effects, leading to conciliatory behaviors in specific situations. The way people cognitively appraise a performance situation is important because it may affect people’s levels of attack. Thus, for example, “threat” appraisals are central to interpersonal conflict. Disappointment also has an effect on the threat appraisals. Anger is elicited from the appraisal that an unfair or unjust act has been committed against oneself or one’s group. The interpersonal effect of emotions means that one’s emotions may influence the behavior of others by eliciting affective reactions in them or by triggering inferential processes. As mentioned above, Disappointment and anger play an important role in conflict resolution. Previous work has shown that negotiators tend to concede when confronted with disappointment. the express of anger reduces tendencies toward interpersonal conflict because it stresses the value of maintaining a positive long term relationship. It is this positive relational signal that increases empathy in the recipients of the communicated anger for those who communicated it. In addition, previous research has shown that trait information of the alternative offers available to the proposer can alter the decisions of the responder in interpersonal conflict. Furthermore, we postulated that this effect also occurred in conflict between doctors and patients. The impact of the trait of information and other people's emotional feedback on social decision-making under interpersonal conflict has not been investigated. Consequently, In two experiments, we used “the ultimatum game” paradigm to investigate the trait of information and other people's emotional feedback on social decision-making under conflict between doctors and patients . Results indicated that: (i) When the doctor's ability is high, compared with the low ability of doctors, the patient's threat assessment of the situation is higher. but in the doctor's disappointment feedback the result is the opposite . (ii) When the doctor is angry, compared with the low warmth of doctors, the high warmth of the patient's threat assessment is higher. (iii) When the doctor is high- warmth, compared with the low warmth of doctors, The patient's bid is higher and the conflict is less. (iiii) In the case of a high level of warmth and ability ,when there is a doctor's anger feedback the patient's bid is less than no emotional feedback. In addition, the current series of studies provide some useful strategies to resolve interpersonal conflicts. On practical implications, this research examines the social psychological mechanism underlying interpersonal conflicts in China and would help managers and administrators understand ways to resolve interpersonal conflicts. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Different Types of Social Exclusion on Help-Seeking Intentions 2021, 44(5): 1179-1183.  Abstract ( )   PDF   People encounter various problems in everyday life, and it is quite common that no one can solve all problems alone. In most cases, seeking help from others in the face of difficulties may be a better choice than depending on oneself, which can save much time and energy. Though a lot of prior research has examined the antecedents of help-seeking behavior, whether social exclusion may exert an impact on help seeking remains a hitherto unaddressed research question. Since social exclusion is a very pervasive phenomenon and help seeking is highly correlated with individuals’ subjective wellbeing, it is of great significance to investigate the causal relationship between social exclusion and help-seeking behavior. According to prior literature, asking for help in difficulties offers people a chance to build social connections with others, satisfying their need for social belongingness. However, seeking help from others also signals dependency and low self-efficacy, threatening help seekers’ sense of control. In addition, extant research on social exclusion has indicated that being ignored threatens need for control and meaningful existence, while being rejected threatens need for belongingness and self-esteem. Building on this, the current research proposes that different types of social exclusion have differential impacts on help-seeking intentions. Specifically, being rejected (vs. ignored) makes people more likely to seek help from others in subsequent difficulties, and this effect is mediated by need for belongingness. However, being ignored (vs. rejected) motivates people to avoid help seeking when they encounter problems in subsequent contexts, and this effect is mediated by need for control. Two studies were conducted to test the assumptions. Study 1 was designed to provide preliminary evidence for the effect of different types of social exclusion on help-seeking intentions. A total of 92 participants recruited from MTurk were randomly assigned to a one factor (types of social exclusion: being ignored vs. being rejected) between-subjects design. Different types of social exclusion were manipulated by asking participants to recall and write about experiences when they were explicitly ignored or rejected. Help-seeking intentions were measured by employing a difficult IQ test. Results showed that being rejected leads to higher help-seeking intentions than being ignored, supporting H1. Study 2 aims to examine the psychological mechanism underlying the effect of different types of social exclusion on help-seeking intentions. A total of 134 Chinese adults recruited from an online survey platform were randomly assigned to a one factor (types of social exclusion: being ignored vs. being rejected) between-subjects design. The same procedure as Study 1 was employed to manipulate different types of social exclusion. Need for belongingness and need for control were then measured. Afterwards, a furniture assembly task was used to measure help-seeking intentions. Results of a parallel mediation analysis suggested that both need for belongingness and need for control mediate the effect of different types of social exclusion on help-seeking intentions, supporting H2 and H3. Moreover, mood, self-esteem and meaningful existence were excluded as alternative explanations, enhancing the robustness of the aforementioned mediation effects. In conclusion, the current research not only documents the influence of different types of social exclusion on help-seeking intentions, but also reveals its underlying mechanism. The findings of this research shed new light on the antecedents of help seeking by validating the differential effects of being ignored and being rejected. Also, this paper contributes to extant social exclusion research by taking the perspective of the need-threat model and investigating a novel downstream consequence, i.e. help-seeking behavior. Related Articles | Metrics

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College Students’ Negative Stereotype and Guessing Bias Towards the Poor 2021, 44(5): 1156-1163.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Culturally shared images portraying the poor are important resources for legalizing income inequality. According to Stereotype Content Model (SCM), competence and warmth are the two fundamental dimensions of stereotype. Low-status people are often seen as incompetent, and threatening individuals are often perceived as cold. The poor have lower income, less education, and worse jobs or no jobs, and they are often perceived as status threats by others. Some studies have shown that the poor are often considered low-competence but high warmth. At first glance, the high warmth evaluation, for the poor, has compensated the low competence evaluation. However, poor people’s warmth score is only at the middle or low level, and far lower than that of the middle-class. Based on the SCM and existing research results, hypothesis is made: (H1) the stereotype towards the poor is likely to be low-competence and low-warmth. The source-monitoring framework suggests that general knowledge or beliefs about sources can lead to biased guessing. Empirical studies also show that stereotypes are an important factor influencing guessing bias in source monitoring tasks: When the source memory is blurred, participants tend to guess that kitchenware was in the kitchen, and toiletries were in the bathroom; medical advices came from doctors, and legal advices came from lawyers; “worry about their attractiveness” came from young people, and “worry about their health” came from older people. Given people’s negative stereotype towards the poor and the effect of stereotype on guessing bias, it can be inferred: (H2) when the source is forgotten, participants are likely show negative guessing bias towards the poor. Two experiments were carried out to test the two hypotheses. College students participated these experiments. Experiment 1 employed two single category-IATs (SC-IAT) to explore participants’ implicit stereotypes towards the poor. SC-IAT is very useful, as it allows for testing the automatic association between “the poor” and “competence” (Exp1a) and the automatic association between “the poor” and “warmth” (Exp1b) without having a complementary target category (such as“the rich”). Experiment 2 required participants to complete the source monitoring task and estimated the guessing bias towards the poor via the two-high threshold source memory model (2HTSM). For the source monitoring task, participants, during the learning phase, were asked to perform a two-choice judgment for individually presented trait words (90 words) paired with their sources (the poor or well-off people). During the testing phase, 180 words were randomly presented on the computer screen. Participants were instructed to indicate whether the word had been presented. When a word was judged as an “old” word, participants then need to indicate its source. In experiment 1, when the words representing the poor and the words representing low-competence (Exp1a) and low-warmth (Exp1b) were categorized on one response key, participants responded faster; the D score in Exp1a was larger than that in Exp1b, suggesting that the poor are stereotyped as low-competence and low-warmth, and their competence is perceived as more negative. In experiment 2, when trait-words were detected as “old”, but the source was forgotten, participants tended to guess that negative trait words came from the poor, but positive words came from well-off people, suggesting that participants have negative guessing bias towards the poor. Taken together, results from the two experiments provide evidences supporting our hypotheses: participants not only hold negative stereotype, but also show a negative guessing bias towards the poor. These may further exacerbate income inequality. Being treated unfairly, the poor faces severe difficulties in the process of poverty alleviation. Therefore, future research needs to explore effective methods to decrease or eliminate the negative stereotypes and guessing bias towards the poor. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Undergraduates’ Loneliness on Depression: Based on Latent Moderated Structural Equation 2021, 44(5): 1184-1192.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Depression is an important factor that endangers human psychological and physical health. It is found that depression or "depressive symptoms" that do not meet the diagnostic criteria mainly occur in late adolescence. College students are in the critical period of transition from adolescence to adulthood, and they are easily prone to mood swings, which is a high incidence of depression. The detection rate of "depressive symptoms" was 29.3% in 2002 and 48.24% in 2020, while the detection rate was only 5%-8% in the general population. It indicates that the current situation of college students' depression is pessimistic. It is necessary to strengthen the research on college students' depression to provide theoretical support for the prevention of depression and the promotion of college students' mental health. Studies have found that loneliness has significant correlation with depression and psychological inflexibility. Mindfulness, as a positive emotion regulation ability, can effectively alleviate depression. In this study, SPSS25.0 was used to conduct descriptive analysis, correlation analysis. Mplus8.3 was used for Common Method Variance (CMV)analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis(CFA), and bias-corrected Bootstrap method was used to analysis the mediating effect and moderated effect. Firstly, we conducted a preliminary analysis which consists of four parts: a) CFA was utilized to confirm the construct validity; b)Verified that reliability and validity were up to standards; c) Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations were presented; d) CMV analysis were used to rule out method variance. Secondly, the mediating effect of cognitive failure was conducted. More importantly, latent moderated structural equation was adopted to test the moderated effect. Finally, the interactions were depicted using the high (1 SD above the mean) and low (1 SD below the mean) scores to analyze the moderated effect of anxiety. Objective: In order to explore the relationship between loneliness and depression and the role of psychological rigidity and mindfulness. Methods: 504 college students (male=131, female=373) were investigated with University of California Los Angeles, Psychological Inflexibility scale, Self-Rating Depression Scale and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale. The structural equation model based on latent Moderated Structural Equation was used to explore the role of mindfulness in it. Results: (1)The Combined Reliability(CR) and Average Variance Extracted(AVE) amount of all scales reached the standard, and the fitting indexes of CFA were good. (2) CMV was not significant; (3) There were a significant positive correlation between loneliness, psychological inflexibility and depression；mindfulness and loneliness, psychological inflexibility and depression were significantly negative correlation; (4) Loneliness had negative prediction of depression, and the loneliness can influence depression through psychological inflexibility; (5) Mindfulness can moderate the relationship between loneliness and depression: Compared to low individuals with lower mindfulness, those with higher mindfulness were less likely to be affected by the negative impact of loneliness. Conclusion: Loneliness affects depression through psychological inflexibility, and mindfulness moderate the direct path. These indicate that mindfulness intervention can be enhanced in the future, which can not only improve the college students’ mental health level, but also explore the applicability of mindfulness cognitive therapy in college students, which is conducive to the promotion of positive psychology and mindfulness cognitive therapy. Related Articles | Metrics

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Relationship between Career Adaptability and Career Choice Anxiety: the Cognitive Processing of Attention Bias and Attribution Xiao-Li SHU jing-shan WU Rui JuanFU lin guiwang 2021, 44(5): 1193-1200.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Career choice anxiety is an emotional state of feeling nervous, worried or fearful when People cannot choose and commit to a particular career, which will affect the physical and mental health of college students and hinder their employment. Some empirical researches have proved that career adaptability is closely related to career anxiety, and which can predict career anxiety. According to the social information processing theory, people with different career adaptability have attention bias, and make different attribution, which may lead to anxiety. Positive affectivity was associated with attributional style for positive, but not negative events, and negative affectivity was associated with attributional style for negative, but not positive events. So, in the current study, the negative event attributional style and positive event attributional style were studied as two variables respectively, and with attentional bias played a different role in the relationship between career adaptability and career anxiety. Therefore, we hypothesized that career adaptability affected Career choice anxiety which was mediated by positive event attributional style, attentional bias and positive event attributional style. Besides, negative event attributional style played a moderating role between career adaptability and turnover intention. Sixty college students participated in the study and were assigned to complete experiment and questionnaires. Attentional bias was measured by the dot-probe task, and career adaptability, attribution and career choice anxiety were assessed by questionnaires. All the questionnaires were well-established in the literature. SPSS25.0 and lisrel8.8 were employed to perform a series of statistical analyses, and Andrew Hayes’ PROCESS macro for SPSS was used to analyze the mediating or moderating effect of attention bias and attribution style, and Johnson -Neyman technique was adopted to quantify the moderation effect of negative event attributional style. The results showed that: (1) Career adaptability not only had a direct and negative effect on career choice anxiety, but also had indirect and negative effect through both the separate mediation path of positive event attributional style and the chained mediation of attention bias and positive event attributional style. (2) negative event attributional style moderated the direct relationship between career adaptability and career choice anxiety. Specifically, when negative events were positively attributed, career adaptability would affect career choice anxiety. When negative events were negatively attributed, career adaptability has no significant effect on career anxiety, because all had high career choice anxiety. Therefore, the effect of career adaptability on college students’ career choice anxiety was a mediated moderating effect. The mediated moderating model significantly revealed the effect mechanism of career adaptability on college students’ career choice anxiety, which could contribute to a better understanding of how individuals in different career adaptability cause career choice anxiety. Furthermore, it suggested that the training of career adaptability and positive attribution is an important way to alleviate career choice anxiety. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Qualitative Research on the Psychological Aspects of Facing Death During the COVID-19 Epidemic 2021, 44(5): 1224-1230.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract：The COVID-19 makes people ponder on the ultimate existential questions, such as life and death. The present study employed qualitative research methods in order to explore the psychological state of people when facing death under the influence of COVID-19 epidemic. In the current study, we used an intensity sampling method with a comprehensive sampling strategy to gain participants. The sample was composed of 18 subjects which consist of 10 males and 8 females. Mean age was 39.6±10.8 years. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews with each of the participants. All interviews were recorded and transcribed into text, then coded and analyzed in Nvivo 11 based on grounded theory. This format included data reduction and theme generation through using open coding, axis coding and selective coding sequently. In addition, participants inspection and expert judgment were adapted to confirm the research results’ validity. In the present study, a total of 269，000 words of transcripts were obtained, with 657 open codes and 22 themes. Research shows that from the perspective of spiritual reality, social reality and physical reality, based on death threats under the influence of COVID-19, the impact on people can be divided into the following three aspects: (1) Sense of Control: Before the epidemic, individuals mainly use the activated avoidance and passive approach to make sure the stability of themselves when facing death events. The death threat of COVID-19 epidemic would contribute to the loss of control on the physical level, whose main manifestations included information uncertainty, unexpected death, death without ability to change and physical loss of control. The response of sense of control was mainly carried out from four aspects: information confirmation, material confirmation, treatment process confirmation and prevention of loss of control. (2) Interpersonal Relationship: A distant person of death did not affect the stability of relationship before the epidemic. However, when a death person close to them, it was buffered by intimate relationships and interpersonal interactions. The fear of relationship breakdown and the compensatory satisfaction of the relationship were also expressed in the face of death threat. The interpersonal relationship level could be dealt with in two ways. One was the enhancement of the relationship and the other was the isolation of the relationship. (3) Sense of Meaning: Before the epidemic, due to social culture, education and personal experience, individuals through values and personal mentality to ensure the sense of meaning when facing death. The threat of death from the Covid-19 outbreak caused a crisis of meaning among respondents. It was mainly manifested as the weakening of self-mental representation, leading to a psychological " selflessness state" and a physical " life-saving state". The response at the level of meaning could be carried out through two aspects including meaning reconstruction and meaning reinforcement. Finally, the limitations and suggestions are analyzed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Successful Experiences Improve Setback Psychology of Undergraduates with Low Perseverance 2021, 44(5): 1216-1223.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Perseverance is a personality state in the face of setbacks. Undergraduates with high perseverance have higher confidence in their success, recover from negative emotions quickly, and are more likely to engage in persistent behavior although faced with setbacks. In contrast, undergraduates with low perseverance are not confident that they will succeed, are immersed in negative emotions, and give up easily when they experience setbacks. Improving confidence in success, emotional experience and persistent behavior of undergraduates with low perseverance can help them overcome setbacks and achieve success. Thus, the current study aimed to explore how to improve the setback psychology of undergraduates with low perseverance. Winner effect is defined as increased probabilities of winning future contests as a result of past experience of winning. Previous studies showed that confidence in success, positive emotions, and persistent behavior were significantly improved after experiencing successes. It suggests that successful experiences can improve the setback psychology of undergraduates with low perseverance after encountering setbacks. The present study aimed to further investigate how many times undergraduates with low perseverance experience successes can improve their setback psychology. In study 1, the undergraduate perseverance scale was used to select high-, middle- and low-perseverance groups. A figure reasoning task was used to create the setback-consecutive success situation. Participants experienced a setback and then experienced 1 success and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 consecutive successes. The results found that the confidence in success of undergraduates after encountering setbacks improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 6 consecutive successes. After encountering setbacks, the positive emotions of high perseverance group improved and began to level off after experiencing 1 success, and those of middle perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 4 consecutive successes, and those of low perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 6 consecutive successes. After encountering setbacks, the persistent intentions of high perseverance group improved and began to level off after experiencing 1 success, and those of middle perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 6 consecutive successes, and those of low perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 7 consecutive successes. In study 2, the undergraduate perseverance scale was used to select high- and low-perseverance groups. An anagram task was used to create the setback-consecutive success situation. Participants experienced a setback and then experienced 1 success and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 consecutive successes. The results found that the confidence in success of undergraduates after encountering setbacks improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 7 consecutive successes. After encountering setbacks, the positive emotions of high perseverance group improved and began to level off after experiencing 1 success, and those of low perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 6 consecutive successes. After encountering setbacks, the persistent intentions of high perseverance group improved and began to level off after experiencing 1 success, and those of low perseverance group improved after experiencing 1 success and began to level off after experiencing 7 consecutive successes. In conclusion, successful experiences can improve setback psychology of undergraduates with low perseverance. The positive emotions of undergraduates with low perseverance can be improved quicker than the persistent behavior after experiencing setbacks. Related Articles | Metrics

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A Probabilistic Representation Approach for the Nonparametric Classification Method to Cognitive Diagnosis 2021, 44(5): 1249-1258.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Cognitive diagnostic assessment (CDA) can be regarded as a kind of formative assessments because it is intended to promote assessment for learning in classrooms by providing the diagnostic information about students’ cognitive strengths and weaknesses. CDA has received increasing attention in recent years. Statistical pattern recognition and classification methodology are two critical parts in CDA. Q-matrix corresponding to feature generation is of paramount importance in CDA. Therefore, Q-matrix becomes a popular research area in the field of CDA. Beside of the study of Q-matrix, many of the studies have focused on cognitive diagnostic models (CDMs). CDMs required a large sample size for calibrating item parameters. Therefore, the nonparametric classification method has become a popular method for classroom assessments. It is very suitable for classroom assessments, because it does rely on a large sample size for the calibration of item parameters. However, classification results for nonparametric classification method are often expressed as the form of 0-1 vector. The classification results lack a probabilistic representation, and cannot finely distinguish the differences in the degree of mastery of attributes among the subjects. At the same time, it lacks the reliability and validity indicators for evaluating the quality of classification results. To solve this problem, a probabilistic representation based approach for the nonparametric classification method to cognitive diagnosis is proposed based on binomial distribution and Boltzmann distribution. The probabilistic representation method handles attributes mastery status at a probability level. A simulation study was conducted to investigate the performance of the probabilistic representation method under three factors (slip parameter, guessing parameter, and two CDMs). Five independent attributes and the reduced Q-matrix as a test Q-matrix were considered in the simulation study. Item response data was generated by the deterministic inputs, noisy “and” gate (DINA) model or the deterministic inputs, noisy “or” gate (DINO) model. Simulation results showed that the performance of the new method is promising in terms of pattern matched rates and attribute matched rates. Results showed that the 0-1 classification results transformed from the probabilistic representation are highly consistent with those of the nonparametric classification method; the attribute posterior probability obtained from the probabilistic representation method is very closed with that of DINA or DINA model; the marginal posterior probability of attributes obtained from the new method can be used to evaluate the validity of classification results. From the simulation and real data study, the major findings and implications are the following: (a) compared with the DINA or DINO model and the conjunctive or disjunctive nonparametric classification method, the accuracy of the nonparametric method is slightly lower than that of the DINA or DINO model when the slip and guessing parameters of test items are quite different; (b) under most conditions, binomial distribution and Boltzmann distribution can be applied to accurately estimate the attribute mastery probability for the nonparametric classification method; (c) classification consistency and accuracy in CDMs and the probabilistic representation can be combined to construct the reliability and validity index for the evaluation of the classification quality of the nonparametric classification method. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Covariates Correlation on The Parameter Estimation in Time-Varying Effects Model 熙彤 黄 2021, 44(5): 1231-1240.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Longitudinal study has its unique and irreplaceable advantages in causal inference, which has received more and more attention and has been frequently used in the fields of developmental, educational and clinical psychology. Recently, the intensive longitudinal study has been favored by researchers, which is based on longer observation time, more measurement times and more accurate depiction of development trends. The Time-varying Effects Model has been widely used in the intensive longitudinal study, and researchers usually include two or more moderators both in simulation and empirical studies. It is common to recognize correlation in psychology field, while previous studies didn’t explore whether covariate correlation will influence the model estimation result. The effect of covariate correlation on the performance of the Time-varying Effects Model remains unknown. In view of the above situations, this study intends to use Monte Carlo simulation to explore whether the covariate correlation will affect the accuracy of parameter estimation in the Time-varying Effects Model with two moderators. Different situations were set by varying the covariant type (time-varying, time-invariant), the sample size and the miss rate of data. The main results of the study are as follows: (1) For both time-varying and time-invariant covariates, the degree of correlation of the covariates affects the accuracy of estimating the slope β_1 and slope β_2. Under each condition, as the correlation of covariate increases, the mean absolute deviation error of the slope β_1 and slope β_2 increases, but the intercept is not affected by the degree of covariate correlation; (2) For both time-varying and time-invariant covariates, the sample size and the miss rate under the most conditions affect the accuracy of the parameter estimation of the Time-varying Effects Model. The mean absolute deviation error of the interception, slope β_1 and slope β_2 decrease as the sample size increases, and increase as the miss rate increases; (3) For both time-varying and time-invariant covariates, the interaction between covariate correlation and the sample size affects the accuracy of the parameter estimation of the slope β_1 and slope β_2. At each sample level, the mean absolute deviation error of slope β_1 and slope β_2 increase with increasing covariate correlation, while the errors are still within acceptable limits under most conditions. While when the sample size is 50 and covariate correlation reaches 0.8, the result is beyond acceptance. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Use of Response Time in Item Selection of Computerized Adaptive Testing 2021, 44(5): 1241-1248.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The computer-based test enables the examinee’s response time (RTs) to be recorded accurately. As an important source of auxiliary information, RTs have an important potential value for test development and management, especially in the field of Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT). With the collection of RTs, the CAT assessment process can be further improved in terms of precision, fairness, and minimizing costs. It is widely known that item selection is the key step of CAT, which reflects its "adaptive" characteristics. The traditional CAT item selection algorithm does not consider RT information, this is unfavorable for test management and may lead to biased assessment results. This paper synthetically and briefly introduces the application of RTs in the item selection of CAT and analyzes the feasibility of these techniques in practice, which makes the readers have a specific and clear understanding of the potential value of RTs in CAT. Since item selection in CAT is based on the candidate's ability estimation (except for the selection of initial items), the improvement of ability estimation can also be considered as an indirect improvement of the item selection. Therefore, this paper divides relevant methods into two categories: (1) indirect improvement of item selection by RTs (ability estimation) and (2) direct improvement of item selection by RTs (item selection method). Generally, a majority of tests are a mixture of speed and power components, while the RTs provide information not only examinees’ ability but also item characteristics. In the past decades, a lot of models for response times and response accuracy (RA) has been proposed (e.g., Thissen, 1983; Wang & Hanson, 2005; van der Linden, 2007), which makes it possible to use RTs to improve the accuracy of ability estimation in CAT, and the item selection is further improved (van der Linden, 2008). In general, examinees with same ability level may need different time to complete an item (van der Linden, Scrams, & Schnipke, 1999), and the response time of an examinee for different items may also be different because some items are usually more time consuming than others (Bergsrtom et al., 1994; Veldkamp, 2016). Test speededness results in examinees taking different amounts of time to complete a test. However, most standardized tests often set a specific time for practical administration purposes, when candidates pressured by the time limit, they may improve the response speed at the expense of accuracy (Entink, Kuhn, Hornke, & Fox, 2009), which leads to biased ability estimation. Therefore, it is necessary to eliminate the influence of the speed factor for the test whose main goal is to evaluate ability, and this is more in line with the unidimensional hypothesis of IRT. However, the conventional item selection methods didn’t take this into account, and RT information should be introduced into the process of item selection to address this problem (van der Linden, Scrams & Schnipke, 1999; Fan et al., 2012). With the development of measurement theory and technology, researchers hope to get richer diagnostic information about an examinee from the test, rather than simply evaluating him on an abstract scale, and the application of RTs is a good start. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Characteristics of Time Perception in Heroin Abstainers 2021, 44(5): 1259-1265.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Relevant research has shown that heroin abstainers’ several cognitive functions are impaired. As a basic function of the central nervous system, time information processing is the basis of various cognitive processing. Drug use can affect time perception, conversely, the distortion of time perception may also lead to drug use. Generally, drug abstainers have changes in time perception, but different drug abstainers have different changes in time perception. Currently, it is not quite clear what kind of time perception characteristics of heroin abstainers are. Therefore, this paper aims to explore the time perception characteristics of heroin abstainers. It selected 32male heroin abstainers (average age: 47.78±6.90 years) from a compulsory drug rehabilitation center in Gansu Province as the abstainer group. Via recruitment, it selected 32 healthy male participants (average age: 45.03 ± 8.24 years) who had never been addicted to any drugs as the control group. All subjects were right-handed and had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and took tests with Beck Anxiety Inventory, Beck Depression Inventory and Barratt Impulsiveness Inventory before the experiment was conducted. The study used a temporal bisection task which included 7 kinds of time interval stimuli. Among them, the standard short time interval was 400ms; the standard long time interval was 1600ms; and the comparison time intervals were 600ms, 800ms, 1000ms, 1200ms and 1400ms. Software E-Prime 2.0 was adopted to collect data. In addition, a repeated-measures ANOVA of 2 (subject type: heroin abstainer group, control group) × 7 (time interval: 400ms, 600ms, 800ms, 1000ms, 1200ms, 1400ms, 1600ms) was performed using SPSS17.0. The proportions of the subjects’ long duration responses were calculated based on their judgements. A plot of the proportions formed a psychometric function that was described as Sigmoid (S) curve. Then, Matlab was used to carry out Sigmoid curve fitting for each group, and the point of subjective equality (PSE) and Weber Ratio(WR) were calculated according to the Sigmoid function obtained from fitting. The result showed a significant main effect of time interval (F (6, 372)= 710.08, P<.001, η2=.92) and a significant interaction between time interval and subject type(F (6, 372)=3.46, p< .05，η2=.05). Besides, compared with the control group, the heroin abstainer group's judgment for the proportion of long response was higher than that of the control group at all 7 kinds of time intervals. However, there was no significant difference in the judgment for short time interval of 400ms and for long time interval of 1200ms, 1400ms and 1600ms between the two groups. While there was significant difference in the judgment for intermediate time interval of 600ms, 800ms and 1000ms. The statistical results of PSE and WR showed that the PSE of the heroin abstainer group was lower than the control group and the difference was significant; while there was no significant difference in WR compared with the normal control group. Based on the result, we can draw below conclusion. Heroin abstainers tend to overestimate time and such overestimation is more greatly reflected in their judgment for the intermediate time interval. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Theoretical Debate on the Effect of Hearing Impairment on Visual Performance of Deaf Individuals: Deficit or Compensation? Guo-Li Yan Zhao QIN 2021, 44(5): 1266-1272.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Effective use of information from multiple sensory channels is critical to explore the surroundings successfully. Hearing loss early makes deaf people rely more on visual modal and leads to changes in their visual performances. There are three theories concerning the effect of hearing impairment on visual performances of deaf people. (1) The first is the deficit theory of visual performance, which believes that visual performances of deaf people are impaired, including the auditory scaffolding hypothesis and the division of labor hypothesis. The former argues that sound is essentially a temporal and sequential signal, and a scaffolding for the development of related cognitive abilities. Therefore, lack of sound early may interfere with these visual sequencing skills. The latter believes that deaf people must rely on vision to complete the current task and monitor surrounding changes at the same time, and then hearing loss changes the way visual attention works. Compared with the highly selective and task-oriented visual attention resources of hearing people, resources of deaf people are more distributed which is harmful to foveal processing. (2) The second is the compensation theory of visual performance, which considers that visual performances of deaf people are enhanced, involving the reactivity enhancement hypothesis and the perceptual enhancement hypothesis based on behavioral outcomes, as well as the supramodal function hypothesis and the dorsal route hypothesis on the ground of physiological mechanisms. The reactivity enhancement hypothesis states that deaf people can detect stimuli in parafoveal and peripheral field more quickly, which represents a kind of compensation in time dimension. The perceptual enhancement hypothesis holds that deaf people can detect visual stimuli further away and their perceptual range is larger than typical individuals, which represents the compensation in spatial dimension. The supramodal function hypothesis suggests that supramodal functions of deaf individuals, which can be completed by multiple sensory systems instead of specific one, will become enhanced owing to the cross-modal reorganization of their auditory cortex caused by hearing loss. The dorsal route hypothesis suggests that the dorsal visual pathway of deaf people is more susceptible to hearing loss, and then visual functions associated with the dorsal route are more prone to enhancement. (3) The third is the integration theory, which suggests that the visual performances of deaf individuals could be both impaired and enhanced, depending on task requirements and ages of participants. Researches, which declare that visual functions of deaf people are impaired, usually employ experimental tasks to investigate the allocation of visual attention resources in time dimension. On the contrary, literatures verifying the enhancement of visual functions of deaf people always use tasks exploring the distribution of visual resources in spatial dimension. What’s more, deaf people's visual function deficits are mostly found in deaf children, while enhancements are obtained in deaf adults. This paper systematically reviews the three theories concerning the influence of hearing impairment on the visual functions of deaf people, but to a certain extent, they all have shortcomings. Further studies can be carried out from the following perspectives: (1) Based on this issue, construct a comprehensive theory with great explanatory power. (2) In order to overcome the large individual differences among deaf people and describe the development trajectory of deaf people's visual functions, longitudinal research is recommended. (3) Employ eye tracking technology to explore the visual performance of deaf people for the sake of the accuracy and effectiveness of data. (4) Explore the impact of visual function changes of deaf people on their reading. Related Articles | Metrics

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The development of the two-step account of sense of agency 2021, 44(5): 1273-1279.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Gallagher defined the Minimal Self as the self with the property of pre-reflection, pre-language, and embodiment. Minimal Self refers to the most basic, immediate and direct empirical subject that still exists after all the non-essential characteristics related to self which have been stripped off. It includes Sense of Ownership (SO) and Sense of Agency (SoA). SO is the sense that I am the one who is undergoing an experience. SoA is the subjective experience in individuals’ voluntary action it is the subjective sense that I am the one who is initiating an action, For example, in a volleyball match, the participant can experience that she is the subject who wants to spike and is making the action. Revealing the development process of the SoA is of great significance for understanding the formation of self-consciousness, and it will also provide a new perspective of exploring the causes of various mental disorders. There is a two-step account of SoA, feeling of agency (FoA) and judgment of agency (JoA). Individuals’ FoA is emerged by matching the prediction of motion with the actual motion effects, and their JoA is produced by the inference from external environmental clues. This study introduced three stages of the SoA’s development from the perspective of the two-step account. The development of SoA has a strong correlation with the formation of self-consciousness and it has three segments. The first stage is from fetus to newborn; their movements in this stage become important basis for the development of SoA. The second stage is from newborn to 8-month, the FoA beginning to develop. The third stage is from 8-month to 4 years old; in this stage, the JoA gradually formed. And the key to the development of SoA is to found an action-effect causal association. Good interpersonal interaction can provide good behavioral feedbacks for infants and then promote infants to form the action-effect causal association. Good interpersonal interaction also provides children more opportunity to make decisions and this will let them more changes to practice their JoA. Thus, good interpersonal interaction is a significant environmental impact factor in the development of SoA. In this process, the nurses not only need to interact actively with young individuals but also need to give them some space for reflecting their actions. This paper points out the shortcomings of the three-stage development model of SoA and also believes that future research should be focused on explaining the development of the SoA from a variety of theoretical perspectives, such as Theory of Apparent Mental Causation and Cue Integration Theory. From these two theories may be more helpful to explain the development process of JoA and the influence factor of JoA. Second, modifying the measurement paradigm of SoA for infants and young children, need to find a more convenient and accurate way to measure the SoA for young individuals. Third, the role of SoA development in social cognitive development. Fourth, explore the relationship between the development of SoA and autism spectrum disorder will be of great significance to explain the causes and treatment of their symptoms. Related Articles | Metrics