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The Effect of Morphological Awareness and Rapid Automatized Naming on Chinese Character Dictation and Copying Yuan Ding 2021, 44(6): 1297-1304.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Mastering writing is one of the important goals in the development of children’s written language, influenced by many reading related skills. Dictation and copying, representing accuracy and fluency in writing respectively, become the important indicators of the writing ability. Although the important role of writing has been unanimously recognized by researchers, the roles of dictation and copying have been underrated for years. Whether dictation or copying was difficult for children, and understanding the factors that influence dictation and copying is crucial to improve writing skills. Different from the alphabetic writing, Chinese characters are unique ideograph. There are a large number of homophones and polysemous characters in Chinese and the irregular grapheme-phoneme correspondence makes children rely more on semantic clues, rather than phonetic clues. Both alphabetic characters and Chinese horizontal researches have shown that children could benefit from morpheme analysis of words in dictation. Thus, it is reasonable to infer that morphological awareness may affect Chinese character dictation. In addition, rapid automatized naming also plays an important role in dictation, but the results of rapid automatized naming on dictation are not consistent. Compared with dictation, copying has received relatively little attention. At present, it is not clear whether morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming have any influence on Chinese characters copying. Furthermore, in order to explore the time effect of morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming on Chinese character dictation and copying, a longitudinal design was adopted, so as to probe more clearly whether there are same predictive effects in the course of time development. The two-year longitudinal study was conducted to explore the effect of morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming on Chinese character dictation and copying over time. Participants included 127 students living in mainland China, who were tracked from fifth to sixth grade, and were administered a comprehensive battery of tests including assessments for non-verbal IQ, phonological awareness, morphological awareness (e.g. homophone awareness, compounding awareness), rapid automatized naming, and dictation and copying of Chinese characters. The direct model was used to determine the contribution of morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming on dictation and copying from grade 5 to 6 by using the structural equation model. After controlling for non-verbal IQ, phonological awareness and the autoregressive effect, the results of model showed that: (1) children’s dictation and copying of Chinese characters have significantly increased over time; (2) morphological awareness in grade 5 significantly predicted the dictation at two time points, while rapid automatized naming in grade 5 only significantly predicted the current dictation in grade 5; (3) both morphological awareness in grade 5 and rapid automatized naming in grade 5 only predict current copying, but had no significant predictive effect on the copying after one year. These findings indicated there is different effects of morphological awareness and rapid automatized naming on Chinese character dictation and copying. This indicates writing accuracy (dictation) should not be unilaterally emphasized when teaching children new vocabulary, but attention should also be given to the cultivation of writing fluency (copying) in daily practice teaching and training. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Eye Movement Characteristics of Localized Attentional Interference Ang LI Jinmian Yang 2021, 44(6): 1282-1289.  Abstract ( )   PDF   LAI is the effect that the objects could not be easily differentiated when they are close in the tasks of visual search. This is because of visual competition that objects would compete for the same receptive fields to be represented. Most previous studies on LAI used the behavioral measurements (e.g., response time) and failed to indicate whether it happens during the process of visual search or later process such as decision making. As suggested by Steelman-Allen, McCarley & Mount (2009), processing of visual information involved a rapid feedforward from the lower level to higher level in the neural architecture (completed within 150 ms, allowing for a coarse object recognition), which was followed by the reentrant processing that information was re-processed from the higher to lower levels to deal with the detail. As a more natural and on-line measurement, eye-tracking techniques could reflect the dynamic processes of LAI and thus enable researchers to get a better understanding of the mechanism underlying this effect. In two eye tracking experiments, this study examined the LAI effects with a 2-target search task, in which 2 non-circle targets were displayed with 10 circles (irrelevant stimuli). The distance between the two targets varied at 30°/90°/150° and subjects were required to determine whether 2 targets were the same or not. In Experiment 1, stimuli were presented for 70ms and the results showed a strong LAI effect. Specifically, compared to the 90° and 150°coniditon, subjects made longer response time, longer total fixation duration, more fixations, lower accuracy rate, and higher saccade average velocity when the two targets were at 30° distance. Stimuli presentation duration was increased to 1500 ms in Experiment 2 to examine whether LAI occurs during visual search or later processes. If LAI effect occurred in the visual search processes, longer presentation duration should help to reduce this effect; on the other hand, if LAI occurred in later process, Experiment 2 should generate stronger LAI effects than Experiment 1. In addition to the similar LAI effects to Experiment 1, Experiment 2 showed that saccade average velocity and saccade amplitude decreased, and total saccade duration increased with a closer distance between the targets. More important, Experiment 2 generated stronger LAI effects than Experiment 1 as indicated by a 2×3 ANOVA between the two experiments in response time. A similar analysis on saccade duration also indicated that subjects in Experiment 2 spent more time on searching. The eye movement results disclosed subjects’ strategies that how they distributed attention among multiple objects under visual competition of various levels. The major conclusions are as follows: (1) when targets were close, subjects needed more fixations and longer fixation duration to accomplish the tasks, (2) when the targets were displayed for a longer time, subjects were encouraged to conduct more searching to cope with the interference, and (3) The LAI-related competition occurred in the process of decision making, instead of the process of searching and recognizing targets. Moreover, the current study indicated the advantage of using the eye tracking paradigm in exploring LAI effect as the traditional paradigm (e.g., response time) failed to reflect the dynamic processes. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Perceptual Processing and Conceptual Processing on the Picture Superiority Effect in Associative Memory 2021, 44(6): 1290-1296.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Previous research has established that, all else being equal, pictures are remembered better than words, which is the picture superiority effect. Earlier studies found that the picture superiority effect was seen in tests of recall, cued recall, and item recognition. Later studies found that the picture superiority effect also exists in associative memory.At present, two general explanations of the picture superiority effect observed in tests of item memory have been proposed: one view emphasizes that the picture has the advantage of perceptual processing, the other point emphasizes the conceptual processing advantage of the picture. While previous studies suggest that compared with perception, conceptual processing contributes more to picture superiority effect in item memory. So will the perceptual processing advantages and conceptual processing advantages of the picture also affect the appearance of the picture advantage effect in associative memory? To solve this problem, the present study aims to adopted the associative recognition paradigm to investigate whether the level of perception and the degree of conceptual processing will affect the picture superiority effect in associative memory. In Experiment 1, we mainly discusses whether there has the picture superiority effect in associative memory when the pictures do not have a perceptual advantage under the blurred condition. During the study phase, participants were asked to remember which items were presented together, half of the participants studied clear picture and word pairs, while the other half studied blurred picture and word pairs. During the item recognition phase, participants were asked to determine whether the item had occurred during the study phase. During the associative recognition phase, participants were asked to determine whether the word pair or picture pair was intact pair or rearranged pair. For each participant in the item and the associative recognition tests, a measure of memory accuracy was calculated as the hits rate minus the false alarms rate. The results of experiment 1 showed that recognition accuracy was significantly greater for picture pairs than word pairs under the clear condition, whereas there was no reliable difference between two item types under the blurred condition. In Experiment 2, we mainly discusses the influence of conceptual processing on the picture superiority effect in associative memory under the blurred condition. During the study phase, all of the materials are blurred. Half of the participants were encouraged to form associations between the items of each pair, and the other half received the same instruction as in Experiment 1. After the study phase, we tested item memory followed by associative memory, with the same design as Experiment 1. Experiment 2 showed that recognition for picture pairs was significantly better than recognition for word pairs when participants do conceptual processing, but there was no reliable difference between two item types under the the control group. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that the reduction of perception processing level will lead to the disappearance of the picture superiority effect in associative memory, and even under the condition of lack of perceptual processing advantages, concept processing will promote the picture superiority effect in associative memory. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Regulatory Role of Operational Representation on Subject Performed Effect: ERPs Study 2021, 44(6): 1328-1335.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Action memory is a memory activity that is accompanied by action manipulation and that involves consciousness. Action memory research conforms to the current trend of embodied cognition research. In comparison with VT, or verbal encoding, the superior memory performance seen in SPT, or motor encoding, is known as the subject performed effect or SPT effect. For now, in the field of cognitive neural mechanism of subject performed effect, the standpoints of motor information reactivation view and action representation view are different. From the perspective of action object, the motor information reactivation view holds that action information, action form, amplitude, speed and other factors are the key to produce subject performed effect of action memory. From the perspective of the operator, action representation is similar to the episodic integration theory. It is believed that the preparation, planning and coordination of individual action concepts under the motor encoding condition is the key to the generation of subject performed effect. Besides, the corresponding empirical studies have yielded conflicting results. Further literature review reveals that structural and functional operational representation exist differences in both physiological basis and mental function. More importantly, the diversity between structural and functional operational representation has similarity with the diversity theoretical and empirical cognitive neural studies of subject performed effect. In brief, operational representation might play a regulatory role in the cognitive neural mechanism of subject performed effect. However, the difference between the two operational representations has not raised concerns in action memory. The difference of early ERPs components between motor and verbal encoding has not been analyzed yet. On these bases, the current study selected 160 structural and 160 functional operational representation action instructions to explore the regulatory role of operational representation in cognitive neural mechanism of subject performed effect through behavioral and ERPs approaches. The behavioral results showed that, the recognition performance under motor encoding was better than that under verbal encoding. The ERPs results showed that, compared with the gerundial phrases under verbal encoding, the gerundial phrases under motor encoding evoked more P1, N2pb, and semantic N400. During 500-700 ms after stimulus presentation, functional operational representation phrases evoked more negative average amplitude at central region; Compared with verbal encoding, the motor encoding of structural and functional operational representation phrases significantly evoked more negative average amplitude at central region; During 700-900 ms after stimulus presentation, only for structural operational representation phrases, motor encoding evoked more positive average amplitude than verbal encoding at prefrontal lobe. In other words, the subject performed effect is still significant. In conclusion, the differences between structural operational representation and functional operational representation could provide analysis and exploration direction for the cognitive neural mechanism theoretical controversies and empirical contrary conclusions of subject performed effect in action memory. The results proved that operational representation played a regulatory role on the subject performed effect in action memory. The results provide data support for the semantic feedback processing mechanism of motor encoding. This study also provides an explanation direction for the integration of motor information reactivation and action representation views. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Cognitive Neural Mechanism of Trait Self-Control in The Multi-Source Interference Task (MSIT) 2021, 44(6): 1322-1327.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Trait self-control (TSC) reflects the differences between people in overcoming impulse, motivation barriers and habitual response patterns. It is positively correlated with many positive outcomes. Also, it’s an effective way to research successful self-control. Researchers considered that conflict resolution is the internal mechanism of success self-control, but there are still in controversies. Some believe the high TSC resolve the conflict faster than the low one. Others believe high TSC often take the initiative to avoid the conflicts, they may have poor ability to solve conflicts. Paradigms commonly used to research conflicts are Stroop, Simon, etc. Their originals are mainly single conflict. However, in real life, many kinds of conflicts may occur at the same time. Therefore, the multi conflict paradigm is more suitable. Among them, Bush and his colleagues developed the multi-source task interference (MSIT) paradigm. It’s more effective and widely used. In this study, the MSIT paradigm combined with ERPs technology to explored the different between high TSC and low TSC on the cognitive neural mechanism. After standardizing the results of the questionnaire，we selected 52 students (26 students with high and low self-control, 33 girls) to participate in the ERPs experiment. During the experiment, E-prime program recorded behavioral data when collecting EEG data. We improved the MSIT task to include font size conflicts and response button conflicts. Font size conflict types are divided into two types: non-conflict (target stimulus and interference stimulus are the same size) and conflict (target stimulus and interference stimulus are different size). The conflict of response key and font size appeared at the same time. Specifically, the number corresponding to the target stimulus did not correspond to the position of response keys. The main results are as follows :(1) In the MSIT task, the accuracy of non-conflict condition is higher than the conflict condition; the response time of conflict conditions is longer than the no conflict conditions.(2) The response time of high TSC was longer than low TSC in MSIT, but there was no difference in accuracy.(3) The N2 amplitude of high TSC in MSIT conflict condition is larger than the no conflict condition, while there is no difference in low TSC.(4) The LPC1 amplitude of high TSC in MSIT conflict condition is larger than that the no conflict condition, while there is no difference in low TSC.(5) The LPC2 amplitude of high and low TSC in MSIT conflict condition is larger than the no conflict condition. This indicates that in MSIT conflict conditions, the high TSC experiences more conflict than the low TSC, which requires more attention to resources for conflict resolution. The results showed that the N2 and LPC1 amplitude in the MSIT conflict condition is larger than the non-conflict condition. This may relate to high TSC sensitivity to conflicts and the attention resources needed to resolve conflicts. Compared with low TSC, the LPC2 amplitude induced by high TSC is larger in MSIT conflict condition. This may indicate that high TSC individuals are more deliberate in conflict resolution. This study focused on the differences in the cognitive control mechanisms of personality, and further proves that individuals with different TSC have different cognitive neural mechanisms. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Influence of Encode Intentionality on Attention Boost Effect ——A Research Based on R/K Paradigm Si-Jie HUANG 2021, 44(6): 1305-1312.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Attentional boost effect refers to the phenomenon that when the secondary task of target detection is used in study phase, the subsequent memory of the study item will not be weakened, but the memory advantage accompanying the target item will be produced (Swallow & Jiang, 2010). Studies have confirmed that ABE is relatively stable under various conditions, no matter what the experimental material is words or pictures, regardless it is implicit memory or explicit memory test. Most of the previous studies on ABE used the recognition test, which is consist of two components: recollection and familiarity. Information is processed differently under different encode intentionality conditions: the processing of information under intentional encode condition is more elaborative, while incidental encode is more dependent on the perceptual processing of information. Although previous studies have found that ABE can also be produced in subsequent recognition tests under incidental encode condition, which component of recognition memory was promoted by target detection was not discussed. The purpose of this study is to explore whether target detection has different effect on recollection and familiarity in recognition memory under different encode intentionality conditions. This study has two conditions of encode intentionality: intentional encode and incidental encode. In the study phase, participants were told to encode a series of words while simultaneously monitoring the color of a circle above the word. They were instructed to press the spacebar when a red circle (target) appeared, and withhold a response when a green circle (distractor) appeared. Under the intentional encode condition, the participants were instructed to perform the target detection task while memorizing the words presented on the screen; while under the incidental encode condition, the participants were instructed to only perform the target detection task and ignore the words presented on the screen. In the later recognition test, the target words and distractor words were mixed with new words and presented randomly, and the participants were instructed to make old/new judgments and remember/know judgments. A total of 55 students participated in the experiment. The materials used in this experiment include 100 target-paired words, 100 distractor-paired words, and 200 new words, all words are low-frequency neutral words. All experimental procedures were programmed in Presentation 0.71, and were run on a DELL Dimension 8200 computer with a 19°monitor (1024×768 pixels). The main results of this experiment were as follows: (1) The interaction between encode intentionality and word type is significant[F(1,43)=5.068,p=0.030,?p2=0.105], which shows that the ABE under intentional encode condition is greater than that under incidental encode condition; (2) Encode intentionality, word type, and judgment type have a significant interaction. In the intentional encode condition, the advantage that target-paired words were recognised better than distractor-paired words in remember judgment[F(1,43)=53.570,p<0.001,?p2=0.555], while ABE was absent in know judgement; conversely, in the incidental encode condition, there was an increase in know judgment for target-paired words as compared to distractor-paired words[F(1,43)=10.060,p=0.003,?p2=0.190], while was not in remember judgement. This result shows that under different encode intentionality conditions, target detection has different effect on recollection and familiarity in recognition memory. Specificly, under intentional encode conditions, target detection promotes remember judgement, which is a judgment that relies on the elaborative processing of information, while incidental encode conditions promote know judgement, which is a judgment that is affected by the perceptual processing of the study item.We can draw a conclusion that the processing enhancement effect induced by target detection is non-specific, and the type of processing promoted by the time-selective-attention mechanism depends on the cognitive processing performed simultaneously with target detection. That is, target detection has an effect on whatever cognitive processing that is simultaneously performed. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Sub-lexical Processing during Chinese Phonogram Recognition among Two, Third and Fourth Grade Children Hong TianLi Yan wu 2021, 44(6): 1369-1375.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Related Articles | Metrics

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Father involvement and school adjustment of rural boarding students: The Mediate Effect of Self-control and The Moderate Effect of Relative Deprivation 2021, 44(6): 1354-1360.  Abstract ( )   PDF   With the rapid development of rural boarding schools, the quality of education in rural primary and secondary schools has been greatly improved in China. However, due to the lack of parental care and communication with their parents, a series of problems emerge in the education of students in rural boarding school, such as weak academic performance and poor school adaptability. Researches in developmental psychology acknowledge the significance of family influence for middle school students who are in their initial stage of puberty, in need of social support from families for their school adaptation, or for dealing with problems in the school environment. Father's involvement refers to the physical and mental participation of father in daily care, support, planning, encouragement, discipline and restraint in the process of children's growth. However, few studies have focused on the relationship between father and children who live at boarding schools. More literature on children family care focuses on mother-child relationship instead of relationship between parents and children. It’s found that father's involvement in parenting can improve students' school adjustment. Another area is also in need of attention, i.e. potential mediating mechanism (how the father's involvement in parenting affects school adjustment) and the regulatory mechanism (when does father's involvement affect school adjustment) between father's participation and school adjustment of rural boarding students. Therefore, this study examines the mediating role of rural boarding students' self-control between father's participation in parenting and school adjustment, and tests whether relative deprivation can regulate this indirect effect. By convenience sampling, 548 students from two rural boarding schools in Zhejiang Province and Jiangxi Province were selected, including 289 boys and 259 girls, aged 14-16 (M = 15.31, SD = 0.78), who Completed a series of self-report surveys, including father involvement, self-control, relative deprivation and school adjustment scales. The measurement tools in this study have sound reliability and validity. Data analysis uses SPSS 25.0 and SPSS macro process, which are developed specifically to assess complex models including mediators and mediators. Taken gender and grade as covariates, the results show that: (1) father involvement was positively correlated with self-control and school adjustment, and negatively correlated with relative deprivation;(2) father involvement directly and positively predicted the school adaptation of rural boarding students. Rural boarding students’ school adaptation problems can also be predicted through the mediation of self-control; (3) relative deprivation played a moderating role in self-control. The simple slope test showed that when the relative deprivation was low, the predictive effect of relative deprivation on self-control was significant; when the relative deprivation was high, the predictive effect of father's participation in parenting on self-control was not significant. Generally speaking, the mediating process of father's participation in parenting through self-control on school adjustment is regulated by relative deprivation. Compared with the rural boarding students with higher relative deprivation and the rural boarding students with low relative deprivation, the mediating effect of father's participation in parenting on school adjustment was stronger.The results reveal the influence of father involvement on rural boarding students' school adjustment and its mechanism, which can provide effective enlightenment for improving school adjustment level. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Differences in Regulatory Effect and Success Degree of Negative Emotions between Detached and Positivity Cognitive Reappraisals in Three Kinds of Participants 2021, 44(6): 1376-1382.  Abstract ( )   PDF   From previous studies, we had found three problems to be experimental researched: (1) Whether there was a significant difference in the negative emotional regulation effect of cognitive reappraisal between the young, the middle and the elderly had not been determined; (2) Whether emotional adjustment time affects the effect of positive cognitive reappraisal needs further experimental verification; (3) At present, there were no experimental studies comparing whether there were significant differences in the negative emotional regulation effect and success degree of cognitive reappraisal between juveniles, youths, middle and elderly peoples. Therefore, we conducted three experimental researched to examine whether there were significant differences in the regulatory effect and success degree of negative emotions between the two kinds cognitive reappraisals of detached and positivity in juveniles, youths, middle and elderly peoples. In this paper, negative and neutral images were selected as experimental materials. The full task design included 2 factors, image valence (Negative or Neutral) and regulation instruction (Positive, Detached and Reactivity). The independent variables were the image valence and regulation instruction, and the dependent variables were the effect of emotion regulation and the success degree of emotion regulation. We selected youths as participants in experiment one. On each trial, participants were initially presented with an instructional cue (Close, Detached or Positive) for 2 s followed by a image stimulus for 8 s. During the image stimulus presentation, participants implemented the strategy they had been cued to use. Following this, participants saw a fixation interval for 3 s and subsequently rated their current affective state (1 = Not at all bad, 5 = Very bad) for 3 s. After completion of the regulation task, the participants were asked how successful they implemented the strategy they had been cued to use. We selected middle and elderly peoples as participants in experiment two. The experimental procedure was similar to that of experiment one, the difference was that no time limit at the self-rating stage, and the self-rating on the computer screen disappeared with the keystroke response of the participants. We selected juveniles as participants in experiment three. The experimental procedure was the same as experiment two. The results showed that the success degree of the detached reappraisal was significantly higher than that of the positive reappraisal (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference in the regulation effect of the two types of cognitive reappraisal in juveniles (p > 0.05). The effect of positive reappraisal in youths was significantly better than that of detached reappraisal (p < 0.001), but there was no significant difference in the success degree of the two types of cognitive reappraisal (p > 0.05). The effect of positive reappraisal in middle and elderly peoples was significantly better than that of detached reappraisal (p < 0.001), and the success degree of the positive reappraisal was significantly higher than that of the detached reappraisal (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in the effect of the two types of cognitive reappraisal strategies on negative emotion in three kinds of participants (p > 0.05), but the success degree of the detached reappraisal in youths were significantly higher than that in juveniles, middle and elderly peoples (p < 0.001), and there was no significant difference between juveniles, middle and elderly peoples (p > 0.05). The success degree of negative emotion regulation in positive reappraisal of youths, middle and elderly peoples were all significantly higher than that of juveniles (p < 0.001; p < 0.01), but there was no significant difference between youths, middle and elderly peoples (p> 0.05). The results demonstrated that there were different regulation effects of positive and detached reappraisal strategies on negative emotions in three age groups, and three age groups also have different regulatory success degree. References | Related Articles | Metrics

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William Stern’s Thoughts on Child Personality Development and Their Historical Effects 2021, 44(6): 1383-1389.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As one of the most important founders of modern child developmental psychology, William Stern made distinguished and original theoretical contributions to the research field of child personality development within the framework of his personalistic descriptive psychology. However, due to the time factor and various deeper reasons, this highly influential academic superstar in European psychology in his era has been widely neglected and even largely forgotten for a long time in the history of psychology after World War II. Unlike Jean Piaget and other early child developmental psychologists, Stern has not so far found a place in American child developmental psychology’s “hall of fame”. I would have to say that it is a pity. Stern’s creative, systematic and dialectical thoughts on child personality development are on the basis of his philosophy of critical personalism as a romantic and overarching worldview or system of thought. Quite ahead of his time, Stern’s ideas clearly embody the fundamental characteristics of a human science approach to child developmental psychology. To a great extent, those diary observations of their own three children that Stern and his wife recorded and accumulated over 18 years constitute the source of these many thoughts and ideas. Stern’s thoughts on child personality development mainly consist of three important dimensions or aspects. Firstly, holistic orientation. He considered child personality development to be the continuous integration into a unitas multiplex. That is to say, a vast multiplicity of psychological and physical interacting parts are being gradually gathered together into a unified whole by the developing child. Secondly, process orientation. He overcame “teleophobia” widespread in psychology at that time and understood child personality development as a fundamentally purposive or teleological in nature process. As a matter of fact, the inherently goal oriented nature is also indicative of the active nature of child personality development. Stern creatively put forward the theory of convergence to elucidate the dynamic of child personality development. According to him, the basic dynamic in the process of development comes from the interplay and interaction between individual endowments (including intentions and goals) and environmental conditions. Stern regarded child personality development as a dialectical process and put more emphasis on the tensions and continuous changes during the process of development. To his or her personality development, every child is a unique and creative entity. In addition to the unique nature and the creative nature of child personality development, Stern also paid attention to openness. He saw healthy child personality development as a process of moving from relatively less to relatively more openness to future over time. Finally, contextual orientation. Stern laid stress on the inherently contextual nature of child personality development and insisted that the child is gradually becoming himself or herself in the world he or she is living in. Stern’s thoughts on child personality development provided direct or indirect sources of thought for many later famous psychologists’ child developmental theories. These psychologists include Gordon Allport, Kurt Lewin, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Charlotte Bühler, Klaus Riegel, and so on. Related Articles | Metrics

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Influencing Factors of Social Adaptation among Left-behind Children in Rural Areas based on Structural Equation Model Mei PENG 2021, 44(6): 1361-1368.  Abstract ( )   PDF   As a special group derived from the urbanization process in China, rural left-behind children deserve great attention. Due to the absence of parents, whether left-behind children can effectively adapt to the social environment deserves great attention. Researchers have found that good social adaptation of left-behind children can buffer the negative effects of being left behind and enable individuals to creatively improve and develop themselves. Therefore, it is important to clearly identify the factors associated with social adaptation of left-behind children. Unfortunately, researchers pay more attention to single factors such as individuals, families or schools, or the joint factors of individuals and families, individuals and schools as causal factors for the social adaptation of left-behind children, and neglect to comprehensively discuss the impact on left-behind children's social adaptation from a multi-dimensional perspective. Among the influential factors, for left-behind children, self-consciousness in individual conditions is an important cognitive factor influencing social adaptation, school is the main social activity area for children, students form relatively stable teacher-student relationships and peer friendships during their interactions with teachers and peers, and school interpersonal relationships are sensitive predictors of different types of social adaptation for children. Parent-child communication in the family environment and social support in the social environment influence the social adaptation of left-behind children. Therefore, it is necessary for future research to consider the factors affecting the social adaptation of left-behind children from a multidimensional perspective of individuals, families, schools, and society. Based on Ecological systems theory, this study proposed a multilevel structural equation model to explore how self-consciousness, parent-child communication, friendship quality, teacher-student relationship and social support influenced the social adaptation of rural left-behind children, which can help them adjust themselves to adapt to the social environment and perform social functions. Data was collected from 2,520 primary and middle school students in 57 classes from 11 schools in Jiangsu Province, including 1440 left-behind children and 1080 non-left-behind children. They anonymously completed the Self-Awareness Scale, Parent-Child Communication Questionnaire, Friendship Quality Questionnaire, Teacher-Student Relationship Scale, Social Support Scale and Social Adaptation Questionnaire. Meanwhile, students’ demographic information including gender, grade, left-behind information were all obtained. All the measures had good reliability and validity. The initial model was established based on the results of the path analysis, and the structural equation model of the factors influencing the social adaptation of left-behind children was established through the comparison of competing models. The results revealed that: (1) Teacher-student relationships, friendship quality, and self-consciousness were positively and significantly related to social adaptation. Friendship quality indirectly affects social adaptation through teacher-student relationships and self-consciousness. (2) Parent-child communication indirectly affects social adaptation by influencing teacher-student relationships, friendship quality, and self-consciousness. (3) Social support indirectly affects social adaptation by influencing teacher-student relationships, friendship quality, and self-consciousness. Meanwhile, among the total effects of factors affecting the social adaptation of left-behind children, the effect values of friendship quality and self-consciousness were high. The study suggests that extra attention should be paid to the friendship quality and self-consciousness of left-behind children, while strengthening parent-child communication and improving the social support system, forming a joint effort of school, family and social education, and effectively improve the social adaptability of left-behind children in rural areas. This study enriches the Ecological systems theory，and have practical significance for improving the social adaptation of rural left-behind children and provides reference for educators. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Impact of Family Rituals on Well-Being of College Students: A Chain Mediating Model of Social Connectedness and Self-Control Ming-Zheng Wu Yang LI Jie WANG Hong-Ye Liu 2021, 44(6): 1346-1353.  Abstract ( )   PDF   This study aims to explore the influence of family rituals on college students' well-being and its mechanism. Family rituals refer to specific, repeated special events that involve two or more family members. These events constitute symbolic acts that are developed throughout the family history; they are imbued with meanings that are constructed and perceived by all of the family members, which promote the family members’ sense of belonging, interpersonal communication, and shared memories. Nowadays, in the process of social transformation and family transformation in China, many family rituals disappear and many family rituals are born (for example, during the Spring Festival, the custom of setting off firecrackers in every family is banned along with the requirement of environmental protection). Under this background, we hope to encourage the education sector and families in general to pay attention to the role of family rituals in promoting adolescent development for maintaining and strengthening the family structure and reducing social risks in the period of social transformation. In order to explore the help of family rituals on adolescent mental health and social adaptation under the Chinese culture, as well as to popularize and develop the concept of family rituals in China, this study used questionnaire method to investigate the Chinese college students. Chinese version of the Family Ritual Questionnaire (FRQ-CV) is introduced in this study, the fitting index, the consistency reliability, criterion-related validity and test-retest reliability of the scale were established. And the FRQ-CV, Social Connectedness Scale, Self-control Scale and Index of Well-being were used to measure 671 college students, 315 males and 356 females. The study used SPSS 24 to perform correlation analysis, and with reference to Hayes (2018) on multiple intermediary inspection method, used SPSS 24 Process plug-in for intermediary structure model analysis and bootstrap path effect analysis, for building the structure of variables: family rituals promote adolescents' well-being, social connectedness and self-control as a chain mediation mechanism, means family rituals promote social connectedness, then promote self-control, finally improve adolescents' well-being. The results show that (1) Family rituals have a significant predictive effect on well-being (95%CI [0.029, 0.085]). (2) Self-control can play as a mediating role for family rituals to promote well-being (95%CI [0.003, 0.014]). (3) Social connectedness can play as a mediating role for family rituals to promote well-being (95%CI [0.069, 0.110]). (4) Family rituals promote well-being through a chain mechanism of social connectedness and self-control (95%CI [0.003, 0.013]). The current study suggests the mechanism of family rituals in promoting well-being of college students, enriches the research on the mechanism of family rituals and shows the important role of family rituals. In terms of theory, this study reveals the chain mediating role of social connection and self-control in the relationship between family rituals and well-being, and further explores the mechanism by which family rituals influence individuals' well-being. In terms of applications, this study empirically reveals the positive effects of family rituals on college students' social connectedness, self-control and well-being, and provides a reference for the development and promotion of family rituals in China. Related Articles | Metrics

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The effect of anger on different forms of malevolent creative performance 2021, 44(6): 1336-1345.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Malevolent creativity is typically defined as the application of original ideas to purposely harm others. Instances of malevolent creativity appears everywhere in antisocial incidents such as financial crime, terrorist attack, and etc. Unveiling factors that can impact malevolent creativity and the underlying mechanism is of much importance to help reduce its potential harm to society. Previous studies indicated anger can induce aggressive behaviors and a high level of high aggression predicts malevolent creative performance. Thus, anger might be an important influence factor of malevolent creativity. A recent study has just proved that anger can enhance individual malevolent creative performance through the implicit aggression pathway and emotional arousal pathway. However, individual malevolent creativity can exhibit in forms of hurting, lying, and playing trick. Investigating the effects of anger on these forms of malevolent creativity and unveiling the underlying mechanism is a significant and novel research topic. Specifically, this study aimed to address the following two scientific questions: (1) what is the effect of anger on three forms of malevolent creative performance? (2) what is the pathway through which anger affects three forms of malevolent creative performance? This study had a single between-subject factorial design (emotion: anger vs. fear vs. neutral emotion), and recruited a total of 108 college students. Participants were randomly assigned to these 3 groups. Each group consisted of 36 participants. Participants in the anger and fear groups (negative emotion contrast) completed a 5-min autobiographical memory task to induce emotions, whereas participants in the neural group completed a 5-min control task (i.e. record the schedule for the day in detail; neutral emotion contrast). Next, all participants needed to solve 3 malevolent creativity tasks (1 task per form of malevolent creativity). During the experiment, participants’ emotional states were assessed using the Self-Assessment Manikin and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Participants’ implicit aggression was evaluated using the preference-phrase method. Participants also completed several scales that assess control factors such as Runco Ideational Behavior Scale, Malevolent Creativity Behavior Scale, Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire. Results showed that during the hurting and lying tasks, idea fluency, originality, and harmfulness were higher in the anger group than in the neural group. During the playing trick task, only idea fluency and originality were higher in the anger group than in the neutral group. These results were stable even when control factors were considered as covariates. Additionally, implicit aggression mediated the effects of anger on idea fluency, originality, and harmfulness of all 3 forms of malevolent creative performance, whereas emotional arousal merely mediated the effect of anger on idea fluency and originality of the “hurting” malevolent creativity task. To sum up, this study suggests that anger can enhance 3 forms of malevolent creative performance, namely hurting, lying, and playing trick. The implicit aggression pathway is a common pathway through which anger stimulates all 3 forms of malevolent creative performance. However, the emotional arousal pathway is a specific pathway through which anger stimulates “hurting” malevolent creative performance. This study theoretically contributes to the research of malevolent creativity and provides evidence and interpretation of anger’s effect on different forms of malevolent creativity and its potential mechanism. Related Articles | Metrics

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Favoring Relatives, Favoring the Sage: The Influence of Relationship and Renqing on Interpersonal Trust Fan ZHANG 2021, 44(6): 1461-1468.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Trust is often exercised with immediate or extended family members in China, which implies that relationship closeness could positively affect interpersonal trust. Renqing, a set of Chinese social norms to get along well with others, also has a positive influence on trust. Moreover, an individual’s trustworthiness, including ability, benevolence, and integrity, are important antecedents of interpersonal trust. Based on extant theories, we attempt to build a systematic mechanism by investigating the influence of relationship closeness, perceived trustworthiness and Renqing orientation on interpersonal trust. Our study contains two experimental research. The theme scenario selected is the classical investment game (trust game). Besides, all participants completed “Inclusion of Other in the Self scale, IOS”, “Trustworthiness Questionnaires”, “General Trust Scale”, and “CPAI-2”. Study 1 used the single factor experimental design within the subjects through the scenario priming, which included relatives, acquaintances, and strangers. A total of 186 questionnaires were distributed, whereas 151 effective responses were collected. Study 2 refers to the single factor experimental design between the subjects, using a similar paradigm as Study 1. In total, 278 effective online responses were collected. A novel tool to measure the participants’ perception of the closeness level of the trustee was used, by which relationship closeness was measured as a continuous variable. As to data analysis, we conducted descriptive statistics and correlation analysis by using SPSS 24. Secondly, we used PROCESS SPSS macro to test the mediation effect of perceived ability, benevolence, integrity and the moderator of Renqing orientation. The results indicated that: (1) The relationship closeness was positively correlated with interpersonal trust, perceived ability, perceived benevolence and perceived integrity (rs = .58, .27, .44, and .43, All ps < .01 in S1; rs = .53, .22, .41, and .35, All ps < .01 in S2). Interpersonal trust was positively correlated with perceived ability, perceived benevolence and perceived integrity (rs = .47, .61, and .62, All ps < .01 in S1; rs = .30, .52, and .51, All ps < .01 in S2). (2) The relationship closeness, from strangers to relatives, can positively predict interpersonal trust (All Total Effects = .52, p < .01 in S2). It can also be indirectly implemented through the perception of ability, benevolence, and integrity (Indirect Effects = .04, .15, and .13, All ps < .01 in S2). (3) The individual’s Renqing orientation had a moderating effect on the closeness level and the trustee’s ability and integrity. Besides, the Renqing orientation regulated the indirect effect of the closeness level on interpersonal trust through the perception of individual ability and integrity. (4) Compared with the acquaintances, individuals perceived higher trustworthiness and performed higher trusty behavior to relatives, while the strangers showed a reverse effect. In this study, we developed a new tool to measure the relationship closeness, which can provide a new measurement for the dynamic change of a certain relationship in the future. The relationship closeness could determine the interpersonal behavior through the evaluation of the others' trustworthiness, which implies that a good trustworthiness trait can weaken the positive effect of relationship closeness on interpersonal trust. Moreover, Renqing orientation had a moderating effect on the overall model, which indicates that Renqing orientation can play a positive role in building a harmonious society. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on Personality of Netease Cloud Music User: Based on Internet Behavior and Lyrics Data 2021, 44(6): 1403-1410.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The development of the information age provides rich behavior and text data online, and it brings great opportunities for psychological research. Music is an important component of human daily life, and the current number of online music users hits 576 million (CNNIC, 2019). Previous study affirmed that personality was closely related to internet behavior and music preference. Recently, Qiu et al. (2019) found that the user's personality could predict words in their favorite music. Based on the research, the present study obtained real data of participants from their homepage of NetEase Cloud Music to increase the efficiency and ecological validity. The purpose of the present study was to explore the correlation between personality and internet behavior; the relationship between personality and lyrics characteristics on both general and specific lexical levels. In the present study, 568 participants completed the Chinese Big Five Personality Inventory brief version (CBF-PI-B) through online and offline recruitment. After obtaining the user's informed consent, the network crawler technology was used to collect data of all participant from Netease Cloud Music. Finally, 380 participants were retained after filtering to analyze the correlation between personality and internet behavior, and those who were inactive or closing down their personal homepage on the platform are screened out. Among the 380 participants, 266 participants who had 8 Chinese songs at least on personal music charts were used to analyze the relationship between personality and lyrics preference. The average number of Chinese songs is 15.07(SD=3.89). Firstly, the internet behavior data was analyzed. It showed that the personality traits of users were weakly related to their internet behavior on the music platform. The correlation value was between -.10 to .17. There was no significant correlation between neuroticism and any kind of internet behavior. Conscientiousness was found to be negatively correlated to “isSelf-introduction”, a characteristic that describes whether to present self-introduction or not, r=-.10, p<.05. Also, conscientiousness was correlated to the number of pure music in top 20, r=.10, p<.05. Agreeableness was positively correlated to the number of following, r=.10, p<.05. Openness had a positive correlation with the number of collected song lists and the average length of name of the collected song lists, r=.17, p<.01, r=.13, p<.05. Extraversion was positively related to the length of nickname, r=.15, p<.01. Then, LIWC and keyword extraction were used to analyze the lyrics data. On the general level, 13 of 43 LIWC variables were significantly related to at least one dimension of the big five personality. The correlation value was between -.19 to .13. Openness showed the most correlation with LIWC variables, while there were no significant correlation between agreeableness, extraversion and any LIWC variables. On the specific level, some keywords were consistent with personality characteristics to some extent, such as “memories” in neuroticism (r=-.13, p<.05), “years” in conscientiousness (r=.15, p<.05), “leave” in agreeableness (r=-.21, p<.01), and “forever” in openness(r=-.16, p<.01). In conclusion, the internet behavior of online music participants as well as LIWC characteristics of their favorite lyrics were related to their personality, and the keyword features of lyrics data was consistent to their personality characteristics to a certain extent. The study belongs to the intersection of psychology and information science, the results may contribute to music personalized recommendation system, music therapy, and health-care professionals. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Differential Mode of Association of “acquaintance” and its embodiment in memory 2021, 44(6): 1446-1452.  Abstract ( )   PDF   This study discussed whether the differential mode of association of “acquaintance” is reflected in intimacy and memory recognition through a self-reference effect paradigm experiment. In the experiment, four reference people with interpersonal distance from close to far were formed by the combination of feelings (deep, light) and communicative purpose (with, without). According to the communication frequency, the first three circles are familiar acquaintances and the fourth circle is nodding acquaintances (people who only know each other). There are a pre-experiment and a formal experiment in this study. The pre-experiment was conducted to test the reliability and validity of the matching of four reference people from two dimensions of feelings and communicative purpose to four interpersonal circles. The pre-experiment consists of two identical tests and two weeks apart. Participants were required to complete the "acquaintances’ Differential Mode of Association Questionnaire", "Interpersonal Circle Questionnaire", and "Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale" successively. Then, they were required to rate the emotional depth of the reference person on a seven-point scale, as well as the communicative instrumental purpose. The results of the pre-experiment showed that the reliability and validity of the questionnaires were good, and there is a downward trend of affinity layer by layer in degree of intimacy in the differential mode of association of "acquaintances". Feelings (deep, light) and communicative purpose (with, without) had significant influence on intimacy. Based on the self-referential effect paradigm and the R/K paradigm, the Formal experiment used a single factor (interpersonal distance: 1, 2, 3, 4, semantic) within-subject design to explore the differences in the intimacy and memory effect of the reference person from near to far. Similar to the pre-experiment, the results of formal experiment also showed a downward trend of affinity layer by layer in degree of intimacy in the differential mode of association. Feelings (deep, light) and communicative purpose (with, without) had significant influence on intimacy. The composition of the four circles in the differential mode of association of "acquaintances" formed by the combination of two factors from near to far is mainly deep/with, deep/without, light/with, light/without. And the recognition rate and R judgment rate presented a binary pattern of "familiar - nodding" acquaintance. The recognition rate of the first three layers is significantly higher than that of the fourth layer, but there is no significant difference among the first three layers, which is consistent with the communication frequency. The results can be explained from the perspectives of self-expansion model, explanation level theory, and communication frequency. First of all, the social distance represented by the interpersonal relationship leads to the psychological distance in the inner circle and the outer circle, which leads to the low-level representation and high-level representation respectively, thus affecting the result of memory recognition. Secondly, there was no significant difference in the communication frequency among reference people in the first three circles, resulting in no significant difference in the memory effect of reference people in the first three circles. The results of this study suggest that memory recognition effect is not only affected by social distance in psychological distance, but also by communication frequency. There is a possibility that social distance and communication frequency can influence the interpretation level together and then affect the memory effect. The results of this study are consistent with Ma et al. (2015) that dichotomy of differential mode of association is also reflected in memory recognition. Although the differential mode of association of "acquaintances" is different in intimacy, it also presents a dichotomous pattern in memory recognition. This shows that the dichotomy circles, as the most basic method of distinguishing the differential mode of association, is also easy to be presented in the memory of psychology. Related Articles | Metrics

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Management of Startle and Surprise in Flight: Extended Landman Model 2021, 44(6): 1432-1439.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Getting benefit from the strength of metal structure, the robustness of mechanical system and the reliability of automatic control system of advanced commercial aircraft, the modern aviation industry maintains a high safety record. However, “black swans” such as “bird strikes”, “stall”, “engine failure”, “automation system failure” are still exist. These unexpected events may induce Startle or Surprise for pilots. Startle and Surprise played a key role in a significant number of Loss-of-Control In-flight events (LOC-I) as well as in other types of accidents. Startle and Surprise may lead the crew to improper intuitive behavior or hasty decision-making. Skillfully trained operating procedures and skills are likely to be forgotten, instead of processing information that first enters the pilot’s brain. To make a long story short, improper Startle and Surprise reactions may endanger aviation safety. This has attracted the attention of the official agencies, such as European Aviation Safety Agency, Federal Aviation Administration, and Civil Aviation Administration of China. The startle reflex is the first response to a sudden, intense stimulus. It triggers an involuntary physiological reflex, such as blinking of the eyes, an increased heart rate and an increased tension of the muscles, startle is regulated by thalamus, amygdala and neocortex. However, Surprise results from a disparity between a person’s expectations and what is actually perceived, Surprise is modified by prefrontal lobe and basal ganglia. In addition, the physiological response of Startle is more obvious than Surprise, by contrast, the duration of Surprise is longer than Startle. In terms of the prevalence of aviation studies, the incidence of Surprise is much higher than that of Startle, and the severity of startle is generally greater than that of Surprise. In order to understand the behavior of pilots in Startle or Surprise, and improve their metacognitive skills, Landman et al (2017a) put forward a model (Landman Model). The model included 7 elements: (1) The perceptual cycle, (2) Startle, (3) Frames, (4) Surprise, (5) Slow appraisal: Sensemaking, (6) Reframing, (7) Stress. Experiment results have shown that this model has a positive value for cognitive training of pilots. However, Landman Model ignores the individual differences of pilots’ psychological ability. Thus, we add (8) Emotional Stability, (9) Cognitive Flexibility, and (10) Working Memory into this model, namely, the Extended Landman Model. There is no doubt that the three new elements will provide guidance for the psychological selection of pilots. Based on Extended Landman Model, we put forward four strategies of Startle and Surprise management. (1) Improve the psychological selection of pilots. In the selection stage, pilots with good emotional stability, cognitive flexibility and working memory ability should be selected. Therefore, it is necessary to add or optimize these three psychological tests in the pilot selection stage. (2) Strengthen the practice of “counterfactual inference.” Encouraging pilots to discuss novel events with their colleagues and explaining how and why they will respond can reduce the negative impact of Startle and Surprise. There are many unexpected events in flight, however, it is impossible to train them all one by one. In the hypothetical scenario, discussion of action plans and psychological exercises can help pilots build a production rule base to improve their mission performance in the serious events. (3) Optimize simulator training. Varied (unexpected) simulation training can make pilots form a cognitive framework to deal with special circumstances, improve cognitive flexibility, enhance self-efficacy, and reduce the occurrence of Startle and Surprise reactions. (4) “Human-centered” automation design. If the automation system feeds back the operation and purpose of each step to the pilot with a voice interpreter, or displays the contents of the “black box” with a visual flow chart (ecological interfaces), it may increase the understanding of the pilot and reduce the occurrence of automation surprises. In summary, the Extended Landman Model is of great significance to the selection and training of pilots. Related Articles | Metrics

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Mechanism of Reputation Transmission via Gossip and its Effect on Cooperative Behaviors 2021, 44(6): 1440-1445.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Reputation is the key mechanism in promoting human cooperation. On the one hand, people judge the trustworthiness of a partner and guide their behavior towards the partner based on their reputation. On the other hand, when reputation at stake, individuals act more cooperatively to gain a good reputation, thereby increasing the chance of getting help from others in the future. However, in daily life, only a fraction of the population can gain other’s reputations through direct observation, and these could inhibit the emergence of human cooperation. Gossip is very valuable to the third party who is absent. As an important way of exchanging social information, gossip is assumed to serve as a critically indirect mean for reputational information transmission, thereby helping to sustain the function of reputation systems. This claim raises issues about how gossip can promote cooperation by facilitating reputation transmission and how accurate and effective it is. This paper aims to review research on gossip to address those questions from the perspectives of gossipers, recipients, and gossip targets. First, after witnessing others’ behaviors in social dilemmas, observers are ready to share the reputation of the targets to the other members in the group, especially the reputation of defectors, even at a personal cost. Moreover, the valence of gossip accurately reflects the targets’ behaviors. Negative emotion and prosocial motivation are considered as the crucial factor driving observers to convey the defectors’ reputation. Second, after receiving the gossip information, recipients perceive it positively and use it as a guide to determine whether to cooperate with the targets and whom to interact. Notably, indirect information still influences the recipient’s decision even in the presence of substantial direct information. Although gossip could be intentionally misled in real life, comparing information from multiple sources could be an effective strategy for recipients to avoid the adverse influences of inaccurate gossip. Finally, when facing the threat of being gossiped, the gossip targets behave in a more prosocial fashion to demonstrate a positive reputation through gossip. Specifically, they act more generously, return more to their trustors, and contribute more to the group, when they know that the observers could potentially spread their reputation to their future partners. In sum, the accumulating evidence manifests that gossip is an accurate and effective way of reputation transmission, helping to sustain a high level of cooperation. For a better understanding of the mechanism of reputation transmission via gossip, further studies are needed to test. First, new experiments could be undertaken to examine the reciprocal motivation of gossipers to address the ultimate explanation of reputational information sharing. Second, future work is needed to investigate the active role of recipients during gossip. Investigations on the impact of being gossiped about on the targets are also recommended. Moreover, it will be worthwhile to investigate the neural substrate of reputational transmission and cooperative behavior by using neuroimaging methods. Related Articles | Metrics

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Be strict with self or others: study on the dual process mechanism of moral hypocrisy 2021, 44(6): 1396-1402.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Moral hypocrisy in the interpersonal level refers to individuals’ judgments of their own immoral behaviors more tolerant than their judgments of the same immoral behaviors which enacted by others. According to the dual process theory of moral judgment, moral hypocrisy involves cognitive process and intuitive process. Moral hypocrisy may be the result of conscious defense and rationalization of one’s own immoral behaviors, which is controlled by cognitive system, while the judgment of others’ immoral behaviors depends on intuitive system. Cognitive process needs cognitive resources and responds slowly, while intuitive process does not need cognitive resources and responds quickly. Meanwhile, the dual-process model of the mind argues that people have two different thinking styles. One is an analytical thinking with high-effort and slow reaction; the other is an intuitive thinking with automatic and quick response. Therefore, in order to explore the impact of intuitive and analytical thinking on moral hypocrisy and to provide empirical support for the dual processing theory of moral hypocrisy, this study read the moral situations of Lammers et al. (2012) for reference and adapted it. In experiment 1, we used 2(with or without time pressure) ×2(moral transgression scenario: self or others) between subject design. The subjects were randomly assigned to time pressure group (intuitive thinking) and without time pressure group (analytical thinking), and then completed the corresponding moral judgment task (moral transgression scenario: self or others, 7-point scale, ranging from 1(extremely wrong) to 7(extremely right)). The results showed that moral hypocrisy existed in the group which without time pressure, that is, participants were more tolerant of themselves than others on moral transgressions, while there was no moral hypocrisy in the time pressure group. The results of experiment 1 showed that the analytical thinking could lead to more moral hypocrisy. In experiment 2, we also used 2(analytic or intuitive thinking training group) ×2(moral transgression scenario: self or others) between subject design, the intuitive thinking and analytical thinking were activated by priming method. The subjects were randomly assigned to different groups, and then completed the moral judgment task (moral transgression scenario: self or others, 7-point scale, ranging from 1(extremely wrong) to 7(extremely right), same as experiment 1)). The results demonstrated that participants acted more moral hypocritical behaviors when priming analytic thinking compared to intuitive thinking, and was identical with experiment 1. The reason might be that: on the one hand, when the subjects on the control of intuitive process, they were lack of cognitive resources, which makes it impossible for subjects to obtain sufficient time to rationalize their behavioral results. Therefore, the judgment will be based more on moral principles and intuition, regardless of whether the actor of the moral behavior is self or others; and when there is no limit on the response time, the cognitive control regains the commanding point, and the individual has enough time and cognitive resources to produce self-service bias, which leads to moral hypocrisy; On the other hand, people have a strong need to maintain their own moral reputation, and try their best to prevent the spread of any words or information that undermines their moral reputation. Beyond reputational concerns, people have an internal need to regard themselves as moral persons and view moral traits as the most essential to the self-image. This explains the subjects in the intuitive thinking group have the same moral judgment for themselves and others, but in the cognitive thinking group, conscious reasoning dominated the intuitive process, producing a more prudent judgment in order to protect their own interest and maintain good moral self-image. The results of our research supported the dual process theory of moral hypocrisy. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Effect of Different Presentations of Surgical Informed Consent on Patients’ Satisfaction Wang Pei 2021, 44(6): 1426-1431.  Abstract ( )   PDF   In recent years, doctor-patient conflicts has become one of the hottest topics in Chinese society. The imperfection of surgical informed consent is one of the most critical incentives of doctor-patient conflicts. Patients need to be well informed so that they can weigh the advantages and disadvantages of undergoing the surgery and experience better health outcomes. In the present study, we discover a better form of surgical informed consent, and valid its impact on patients’ satisfaction and understanding on surgical informed consent process. We hypothesize that: (a) compared to participants who read the paper, participants who read paper with booklets or paper with video have better understanding on surgical informed consent. (b) compared to videos, booklets are a better way to improve participants’ understanding on surgical informed consent and meet their information needs. One hundred and fifty nine undergraduate students participated in the study. Participants were asked to imagine themselves as patients about to undergo laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Then they were randomly assigned to surgical informed consent paper group, surgical informed consent booklets group and surgical informed consent videos group, and experienced corresponding informed consent process. Participants in the booklets group would first read the surgical informed consent booklet, then read and sign the surgical informed consent paper. Participants in the videos group would first watch the surgical informed consent video, then read and sign the surgical informed consent paper. Participants in the paper group would read and sign the surgical informed consent paper straightly. In order to measure the effects of informed consent procedure, after signing the informed consent paper, participants rated on a 5-point Likert scale, evaluating their satisfaction with informed consent procedure, their perceptions of their understanding on the disease/ treatment/ surgery, and their needs for disease/ treatment/ surgical information. A one-way ANOVA with forms of informed consent as independent variable and patients’ satisfaction with informed consent process as dependent variable revealed a main effect of forms of informed consent. Bonferroni's post-test found that patients’ satisfaction with informed consent process in paper group is significantly lower than those in booklets group. This indicated that add supplementary information to informed consent paper can improve patients’ satisfaction with informed consent process. Moreover, participants perceptions of their understanding of surgical information as well as their scores on surgical information needs in paper group are significantly lower than those in booklets group, too. A one-way ANOVA with patients’ needs for treatment information as independent variable showed a main effect of forms of informed consent. Bonferroni's post-test found that the patients’ scores on treatment information needs in booklets group was significantly higher than those in paper group and those in videos group. What’s more, patients’ scores on surgical information needs in paper group was significantly lower than those in booklets group and those in videos group. In conclusion, supplementary information to surgical informed consent paper can improve patients’ satisfaction with informed consent process, increase patients’ perceptions of their understanding of surgical informed consent paper and meet patients' needs for treatment information. Further, compared to videos, booklets are a better form of informed consent. The practice implications of this study was that current study explore a better form of informed consent, which can be used in future’s medical practice. Future studies can take patients' psychological needs as the dependent variable to explore the impact of supplementary materials on patients' psychological needs. Besides, evaluation indexes such as the recall rate of informed consent content or the correct rate of answering informed consent questions can be used as dependent variables to measure patients’ understanding of informed consent in a more objective way. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Association between Mate Ostracism and Women’s Divorce Intention: The Chain Mediating Role of Anger and Marital Satisfaction 2021, 44(6): 1453-1460.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Ostracism refers to being ignored or excluded by individuals or groups. Prior studies have consistently shown that being ostracized by others thwarts the satisfaction of four fundamental needs: belonging, control, meaningful existence, and self-esteem. As a kind of “cold violence”, ostracism is also prevalence among spouses, with 67 percent of Americans admitting to having treated an intimate partner coldly and 75 percent saying they have been ostracized by a spouse. However, most research has focused on ostracism in laboratory using more temporary methods of ostracism, and paid little attention to chronic ostracism, especially ostracism in specific relationships or situations, for example, ostracism by spouses. Drawing from the temporal need-threat model on ostracism and the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model of marriage stability, this study examined the effect of mate ostracism on women’s divorce intention, and the serial mediating role of anger and marital satisfaction in this link. Our theoretical model was examined with 543 married women. Participants completed the revised Ostracism Experiences Scale, Trait Anger subscale of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory, Marital Satisfaction subscale of the Marital Quality, and Divorce Intention Inventory. Data was collected and analyzed with PROCESS Model 6 of SPSS 21.0, and the bias-corrected percentile Bootstrap method was used to analyze the serial mediating role of anger and marital satisfaction between mate ostracism and women’s divorce intention. The results showed that: (1) Mate ostracism was positively correlated with anger (r = .34, p < .01) and divorce intention (r = .51, p < .01), and it was negatively correlated with marital satisfaction (r = -.61, p < .01). (2) Anger was negatively correlated with marital satisfaction (r = -.41, p < .01), and positively correlated with divorce intention (r = .37, p < .01). (3) Marital satisfaction was negatively correlated with divorce intention (r = -.68, p < .01). (4) Mediation analyses indicated that mate ostracism directly predicted women’s divorce intention; and also indirectly affected women’s divorce intention through anger, marital satisfaction and the chain mediating role of both anger and marital satisfaction. The present study not only examined the relationships between mate ostracism and women’s divorce intention, but also found the serial mediating role of anger and marital satisfaction in this link, which expanded the related areas and enriched the temporal need-threat model on ostracism and the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model of marriage stability. The results confirmed the mediating role of anger between the ostracism by spouses and the female's intention to divorce, which suggested that the role of anger and other emotions in the study of the mechanism of the influence of ostracism should be paid more attention. Furthermore, the results also confirmed the mediating role of marital satisfaction between mate ostracism and divorce intention, which conforms to the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model of marital stability. Compared with the direct path and the other two indirect paths, the path of ostracism from spouses -- marital satisfaction -- divorce intention has the highest effect value, which further proves that marital satisfaction is the most effective predictor to predict the individual's divorce intention. In addition, this chain mediating role confirms the influence of emotion on life satisfaction, which reflects the effect of emotional consistency. It expands both the model of temporal need-threat on ostracism and the mechanism between adaptation process and marital satisfaction in the vulnerability-stress-adaptation model, and provides possible scientific paths for how to reduce the impact of mate ostracism on divorce intention. Limitations of this study were also discussed. Related Articles | Metrics

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Going into nature: nature experience and its positive effects 2021, 44(6): 1469-1475.  Abstract ( )   PDF   With the acceleration of industrialization and urbanization, there are fewer opportunities for modern people to contact with nature, and the relationship between human and nature has been seriously damaged. As a result, more and more urban residents have physical and mental sub-health problems. Researchers from multiple fields have tried to restart the connections between human and nature, and find ways in nature to benefit "modern human health". Nature experience means that individuals perceive and/or interact with stimuli from the nature world through various sensory channels. Researchers usually use subjective questionnaire measurement methods, objective nature index methods and experimental manipulation methods to quantify and manipulate individuals’ nature experience. Previous studies have applied these methods and found that perceptions and/or interactions with natural environments have positive effects on mental health, cognitive function, physical health and behaviors. Among them, the positive effects of nature experience on mental health include the weakening of negative mental states and the strengthening of positive mental states. Moreover, previous studies showed that living near the natural environment is beneficial to long-term physical health. In terms of behaviors, people with a higher level of nature experience tend to exhibit fewer negative behaviors and more positive behaviors. With the development of multidisciplinary research related to nature experience, some scholars no longer stop at verifying whether or where there are positive effects of nature experience, but have begun to explore the factors that may affect the positive effects of nature experience, including physical environmental, personal and social factors. In terms of physical environmental factors, previous explorations of “the positive effects of nature experience” mostly focused on targets such as trees, green spaces, and / or forest parks. In addition to green space elements such as plants, there are many other key elements in nature that may play an important role in promoting positive effects, including water, animals and microorganisms. Moreover, individual perception and interaction with the natural environment may affect the positive effects of the nature experience. Among them, some research evidence indicates that it is possible to have a positive effect by perceiving a safe or attractive natural environment. In addition, factors such as the relationship between people and nature, the type of interaction, the frequency / duration of interaction may also affect the occurrence and extent of positive effects. Additionally, the influence of social factors such as social interaction and population mobility has been confirmed. In terms of social interaction, studies have shown that social interaction opportunities in nature areas are one of the important factors that promote people's contact with natural areas. Future research should pay attention to improving the quantitative methods of natural experience dose, break through the inherent dualistic thinking of "urban-nature", and broadening the research issues and ideas of positive effects. In addition, researchers can expand the research subjects from normal groups to special groups (such as the elderly, violent criminal prisoners, the Internet and substance addicts). At the same time, it encourages the integration of the needs of multiple fields to promote the research results of nature experience to social reality. Related Articles | Metrics

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Imaging Intergroup Contact and Altruistic Collective Action Intentions: Mediating Roles of System Justification and Intergroup Evaluation 2021, 44(6): 1411-1418.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Collective action is an effective way to maintain and realize social equity and justice. Social-psychological theory and research typically defines collective action as any action performed by group members to improve the status of a whole group in the context of collective disadvantage. As such, this literature typically focuses on disadvantaged groups’ self-regard collective action. Far less attention has been given to collective action in contexts characterized by protesting to promote the interests and status of out-group members. We propose a novel way to integrate the insights from social-psychological theories of collective action and intergroup contact theory to better understand what s those who have nothing to do with the social issues to help disadvantaged groups fight for their rights and interests. Three experiments were conducted to explore the influence of positive intergroup contact on altruistic collective action and the inner psychological process. Experiment 1 used the imaginative intergroup contact paradigm to manipulate positive intergroup contact to investigate the causal relationship between positive intergroup contact and altruistic collective action. 95 students were recruited and randomly assigned to the 2 conditions. It was found that positive intergroup contact promoted altruistic collective action, and system justification and the warmth dimension of intergroup evaluation mediated the influence of positive intergroup contact on altruistic collective action. The specific performance was that positive contact inhibited system justification, and then the bystander group members were more willing to participate in collective action to help the disadvantaged group. Besides, positive contact made the bystanders evaluate disadvantaged group members more positively (more warmth), and thus more willing to participate in altruistic collective action. Experiment 2 manipulated system justification to investigate the causal relationship. 75 students were recruited, and the findings showed that increased system justification inhibited collective action, because one should be unlikely to act against a system that one perceives as just. Experiment 3 manipulated warmth evaluation (69 students were recruited), and the finding showed that the more warmth the out-group (disadvantaged-group) members were described, the more willing the bystanders were to participate in altruistic collective action. When used as follow-ups to the original mediational test, Studies 2 and 3 provided the strongest evidence that system justification and perceived warmth of out-group members mediated the association between positive contact and altruistic collective action. In conclusion, the current research explores the causal relationship between positive intergroup contact and altruistic collective action, including the causal impact of two proposed mediators—system justification and warmth evaluation—on collective action. Beyond traditional prejudice reduction and collective action approaches, intergroup contact can bridge social divides and unite people in the struggle for social justice. Positive contact can, as suggested in the present research, convince members of the bystanders to support movements against inequality. Similarly, positive contact between different minority groups could lead them to unite and form new coalitions in the pursuit of social justice. The present research offers a compelling case for the importance of intergroup contact for social change. Related Articles | Metrics

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A nudge study on future orientation of adolescents with problematic online games use Junjian Yu Zhao Shouying 2021, 44(6): 1483-1490.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Abstract With the continuous popularization and development of the Internet, online games have entered our life. More and more people were addicted to online games, especially adolescents. The use of adolescents' online games has a serious impact on their physical and mental health development. It has been found that the reasons for the problem of adolescents' online game use were due to the lack of time awareness and management ability. Therefore, the purpose of our study examined the effectiveness of future-oriented internal anchors and external anchors in reducing adolescent play time in problematic online games and found solutions about their addiction behavior on online games. In this study, firstly, we investigated and analyzed adolescents’ degree of problematic online games use by using the questionnaire of problematic online game use (POGU). The adolescents with the characteristics of problematic online games were selected by questionnaire test. Then the participants were evenly divided into two groups according to the score of problematic online game use questionnaire. Two groups of experiments were conducted respectively. Based on the theory of the anchoring effect, perspective of attitude change and the theory of nudging effect, the first experiment designed future-oriented internal anchors, using the time mental account research paradigm, to test the effectiveness of time reduction in problematic online games use. The second experiment designed future-oriented external anchors, also used the time mental account research paradigm, and then tested the effectiveness of time reduction in problematic online games use. In the first experiment, the instruction was presented on the screen first to participants and then showed a fixation point. Then the relevant materials of the time mental account experiment were presented, including four situations, and all the materials were presented only once. The participants imagined this situation and chose how to allocate time in this situation. Afterwards, the future-oriented internal anchor nudge materials were presented to the participants. When the nudge materials were finish presented, the time mental account materials were presented to participants again, and asked how they would allocate their time in the same situations. In second experiment, the future-oriented external anchor nudge materials were presented to participants, and the other steps were the same as that in the first experiment. The results of this study were as followed: (1) Time source, allocation time length, and internal nudge method had a significant impact on time distribution of adolescents with problematic online games use, and adolescents improved their decision-making utility of game time allocation. (2) Time source, allocation time length, and external nudge method had a significant impact on time distribution of adolescents with problematic online games use, and adolescents improved their decision-making utility of game time allocation. (3) Through the role of future-oriented internal anchor and future-oriented external anchor, it could promote the change of adolescents ' time psychological account in problem online game use and reduce their game time. (4) The nudging method affected their allocation of game time use and reduced the game time. Adolescents who have problematic online games use behavior improved their decision-making utility. In this study, behavioral nudge research method was used to promote national physical and mental health through anchoring effect. This method can help adolescents allocate game time more reasonably and effectively reduce their game time. This was a new attempt of this method in promoting the field of mental health in basic education, and provided a new solution for preventing adolescents ' online game addiction. Key words Adolescents；Problematic online game use；Future orientation；Time mental accounting；Nudge Related Articles | Metrics

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Advantages and significance of the One-parameter and Unidimensional Rasch Model 2021, 44(6): 1490-1498.  Abstract ( )   PDF   There are various analysis models of item response theory (IRT). Based on their quantitative differences in parameters and dimensions, they fall into two schools: the atypical IRT school with Rasch model proposed by Georg Rasch as the research orientation and the typical IRT school with Three-parameter Logistic (3PL) model proposed by Birnbaum as the research orientation. The former emphasizes the one-parameter and unidimensional research paradigm, while the latter emphasizes the multi-parameter and multi-dimensional research development direction. The multi-parameter and multi-dimensional IRT model is a measurement method which advocates "model fits data". It focuses on the interpretability of data, and sets multiple parameters to achieve the goals of better fitting data and more sufficient interpretation of data. In a multidimensional case, researchers pay attention to the distinction and connection between dimensions from an integrated perspective. They attach importance to the influence of the interaction between different dimensions, and the influence of the interaction between dimensions and objects on parameter estimation as well. However, the multi-parameter and multi-dimensional IRT model exhibits strong sample dependence, and the relationship between model parameters is complicated and more susceptible to additional factors. In contrast, Rasch model is a "simple" model. It adheres to the one-parameter and unidimensional research paradigm, and focuses on the corresponding relationship between measurement objectives and measurement tools. It is designed on the basis of the relationship between objects and instruments. In Rasch model, difficulty parameters and ability parameters are symmetrical to each other; the estimation of item difficulty parameters does not depend on the difficulty distribution of items, and the estimation of person ability parameters does not depend on the ability distribution of persons. Besides, Rasch model can transform the non-linear data matrix composed of responses into two symmetrical columns of interval data reflecting ability parameters and difficulty parameters respectively. These features of Rasch model make it have two major advantages in practical applications. First, the essential advantage of Rasch model is that it can base on low-level data (Nominal Data or Ordinal Data) to construct a higher level of linear measurement, which provides more useful metrical information. Second, in the process of constructing or revising measurement tools, Rasch model places persons and items conjointly, and it is helpful for researchers to evaluate and explain the adaptability between the measured objects and the measurement tools more accurately. In the multi-dimensional research, Rasch model and MIRT model are applicable to different groups of research cases and can also complement each other in certain cases. Rasch model is suitable for the research with high correlation between dimensions or only one dominant factor. On the one hand, it requires the elimination of non-unidimensional items in the data to maintain the unidimensional nature of the original measurement. The objective of this practice is to ensure that each test only focuses on one variable or feature. On the other hand, it focuses on the explanatory power of the dominant dimension generated by the integration of different dimensions, and also on the analysis of whether deviant indicators indicate the existence of secondary dimensions. In general, Rasch model emphasizes two principles — "Theory drives research" and "Data matches model". Its core is the one-parameter and unidimensional measurement model can minimize the influence and interference of additional variables on the actual measurement goal, and ensure the objectivity and accuracy of measurement accordingly. Related Articles | Metrics

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A qualitative study of the process of inmates reshape the value of the rule of law 2021, 44(6): 1513-1518.  Abstract ( )   PDF   The value of the rule of law is one of core socialist values. It embodies moral and legal ideals as a moral compass for Chinese citizens to regulate social behavior, adjust social relations and maintain social order. It also guides inmates to become law-abiding citizens to voluntarily assume their statutory duties to society and family. In China, correctional facilities re-socialize inmates with reshaping their value of the rule of law. The present study focused on the subjective experiences of inmates in the reshaping process. To address this issue, this study employed a qualitative research paradigm, using the Grounded Theory method, following the principle of theoretical sampling. Data from 3 different sources were collected: 8 inmates were recruited to participate in-depth interview with a semi-structured protocol, 3 inmates' documents of their confessions and 2 inmates' documents of their news interviews were collected. Data were analyzed with NVivo 11.0, the text encoding system included 5 core categories, 17 axial categories and, 73 opening categories. According to these codes, the present study constructed a concise and coherent theory of the process of reshaping inmates' value of the rule of law. Member checking, data triangulation, and Jaccard similarity coefficient were used to verify the study results' quality and validity. Results showed that the process of reshaping inmates' value of the rule of law can be divided into 4 stages. Stage 1: Foundation, inmates experienced shame and anxiety, gradually abandoned distorted thoughts, progressively accepted new social identities, experienced depression and missed their family. Stage 2: Accumulation, inmates accepted law education, virtue education as well as learn core socialist values and realized the harm of crime. Comparing the good of their family for them with their injury to their family, the guilt experience emerges. And the civilian police encouraged inmates to construct legitimate behavior, they started to correct the criminal values on their initiative. Stage 3: Transformation, inmates reflected on their criminal behaviors, identified the root cause of their distorted values and regretted the crime. This reflection accumulated and sublimated into respect for the law. Consequently, inmates organized law-abiding information and integrated it into their self-schema. Stage 4: Expansion, even the self-schema was renewed, inmates were also worried about social rejection, the devaluation of social evaluation, and even suspected the possibility of returning to society. Under the guidance of the civilian police, inmates expanding the value of the rule of law to future social lives. Planning for law-abiding behaviors, their belief in law was fostered. The findings of this study could provide theoretical support for the propaganda of the rule of law and law education. This will promote the public to acquire legal knowledge and practice the value of the rule of law. Related Articles | Metrics

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Effects of Chronic Stress on Third-party Punishment and Individual Differences 2021, 44(6): 1506-1512.  Abstract ( )   PDF   It is known that stress influence social decision making by eliciting a “tend-and-befriend” or a “fight-or-flight” response. Third-party punishment is one of the most common forms of social decisions which are based on the intention behind and the outcome of a defection. Importantly, they could also be affected by the emotional states, such as stress. Previous studies have investigated the influence of acute stress on third-party punishment using economic games as paradigms. The effects of chronic stress on third-party punishment should be further tested using criminal vignettes considering that they are more morally and legally salient than the economic games. In addition, few studies have investigated the effects of stress on third-party punishment among people with legal expertise. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the effects of examination stress on third-party punishment among people with or without legal training. A 2 (between-subjects factor: group, stress vs. control group) * 2 (within-subjects factor: intention, clear vs. ambiguous) * 2 (within-subjects factor: outcome, severe vs. not severe) mixed design was employed in the study. In Experiment 1, sixty-one law students were recruited. The stress group would attend the National Judicial Examination in a couple of weeks whereas the control group had no stressful life events within a month. In experiment 2, sixty-three non-law students were recruited. The stress group would attend the Graduate Entrance Examination in two or three weeks whereas the control group had no stressful life events. All participants initially were required to fill in three self-assessment questionnaires (i.e. PANAS; STAI; JSI). In the formal study, they were asked to envisage themselves as a judge and complete third-party punishment in 12 criminal vignettes which varied on the clarity of intention and the severity of outcome. The results showed that the stress group experienced a higher level of negative emotion than the control group. The clarity of intention and the severity of outcome predicted the magnitudes of punishment. Penalties for the defendants with a clear intention were heavier than those with an ambiguous intention, and the crimes with a serious consequence were punished more severely than those with a less serious consequence. The chronic examination stress increased third-party punishment only in the law-students group. The negative emotion positively predicted the magnitudes of punishment and fully mediated the effect of chronic stress on punishment. Additionally, other justice sensitivity moderated the stress effect. Taken together, the findings suggest that chronic stress does have an influence on third-party punishment regardless of the level of intention or outcome. People are more punitive after experiencing stressful life events. But the effect of stress on third-party punishment is restricted to participants with legal expertise. Additionally, third-party punishment is also influenced by individual differences in justice sensitivity. These findings would deepen our understanding of how stress affects social decision making and might have some implications for judicial practice. Related Articles | Metrics

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Visual Perspective Taking of Patients with Schizophrenia 2021, 44(6): 1499-1505.  Abstract ( )   PDF   Visual perspective-taking (VPT) is ability predict the visual experience of another agent (their meaning, intentions, desires, and knowledge). It could help people to understand others’ standpoint, thereby increased relations with others. VPT is typically divided into one of two dimensions: one that simply assesses what someone else can see (“Level 1” perspective taking), and another that requires participants to adopt someone else’s spatial point of view to judge how that person sees a particular visual stimulus (“Level 2” perspective taking). If someone lose the ability of VPT, symptoms characteristic of psychopathy may occur, such as delusion, hallucination. Social function of patient with schizophrenia would influence by VPT. The present study analyzed the mental mechanisms and neural mechanism of VPT in patient with schizophrenia. The result showed that the ability of VPT in patient with schizophrenia have certain defects. More concretely, in VPT task, patients with schizophrenia display increased egocentric intrusion and decreased altercentric intrusion compared to controls, it means patients may failure to inhibit one’s own perspective when trying to take another’s. It fit the core symptom of self-disorder model of schizophrenia, hyper-reflexivity, refers to an exaggerated self-consciousness, a tendency (fundamentally nonvolitional) for focal attention to be directed toward processes and phenomena that would normally be “inhabited” or experienced (tacitly) as part of oneself. The process of VPT usually need the synergy work with right temporo-parietal junction, ventral medial prefrontal cortex and ventral precuneus. Patients with schizophrenia showed revealed hypoactivity in the medial prefrontal (anterior cingulate) and orbitofrontal cortices during VPT trials compared to control trials relative to healthy controls. It would manifest disruptions are present in the most fundamental aspects of VPT in patients with schizophrenia, and that these disruptions impact higher-order social information processing. There are two possible factor that could influent the VPT of patients with schizophrenia. Accumulating evidence suggests that patients with schizophrenia exhibit deficits in response inhibition. During VPT, patient may could not suppress an irrelevant response or impulse from self. As a concrete manifestation of extremely egocentric intrusion when need to take others perspective. The deficit would affect both level 1 and level 2 VPT. On the other hand, VPT also need the ability of mental rotation, it may only affect level 2 VPT, because of level 2 VPT requires participants to adopt someone else’s spatial point of view to judge how that person sees a particular visual stimulus. Patients with schizophrenia have been proved deficit in mental rotation task, they showed lower responses and poorer accuracy compared to control group. Exhibit and mental rotation are considered an important component of executive function and influences daily functioning. The ability of VPT could be improve if the ability of exhibit and mental rotation were improved. At present, cognition training is an effective means which could improves cognitive function (e.g., exhibit, mental rotation) of patients with schizophrenia. Future studies should explore the effect of cognition training on VPT in schizophrenia and adopt neuro-physiological methods to explore other factor which may affect the ability of VPT in patients with schizophrenia. Related Articles | Metrics

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“Enactive cognition”, “Interaction theory” and “Predictive processing model” ——a new look at “the problems of other mind” Jia-Jia Su Hao-sheng YE 2021, 44(6): 1519-1526.  Abstract ( )   PDF   “The problems of other mind” is a hot and difficult point in the field of ”cognitive science“. “Interaction theory” from the perspective of “enactive cognition” is expected to integrate the traditional theories of “the problems of other mind” to form a unified platform in the field of social cognition. Firstly, this paper answers the background of cognitive science of “interaction theory” for seeking the meaning of “enactive cognition” as a new turn of cognitive science for “the problems of other mind”, specifically, this part introduces the theory of “enactive cognition”. As a science that studies the mysteries of human mind, the ultimate inquiry of cognitive science is the strong continuity thesis between Life and Mind. From the perspective of “enactive cognition”, the fundamental reason for the cognitive gap lies in the failure of the individualism assumption prevailing in the methodology of traditional cognitive science. Therefore, “enactive cognition” believes that the key step to bridge the cognitive gap is to return to the social context and identify how meaning is generated. Secondly, it answers the “interaction theory” itself for seeking how “interaction theory” solves the meaning’s generation of “the problems of other mind”, Specifically, this part investigates the concept of “intercorporeality”. “The problem of other-mind” should answer “Participatory sense making” in order to solve the meaning generated in the philosophy of mind, while the “interaction theory”stressed that the meaning of “intercorporeality” is created through “behavior matching” and “interactional synchrony” between the body and body without “mental representation”. But is “the problem of other-mind” reduced to the complex dynamic cycle of the brain, body and world itself if “interaction theory” leaves out “representation”? Finally, the paper tries to answer the limitation of “interaction theory” for seeking how the “predictive processing model” can clear out the black box of “representation” by using mathematical thinking mode, Specifically, this part establishes a “predictive processing non-representation model” of “interaction theory”. The intergenerational struggle in cognitive science is “representation wars”. In the rebellion against behaviorism, each iteration of cognitive science presuppositions that there must be a black box (representation) between perception and action. As a leading theoretical paradigm in cognitive science, recently “PP model” is considered to be helpful to quantitatively understand the core claims of "cognitive science" because there are studies have shown that the mathematical model of “PP model” can also be integrated with the “the problem of other-mind”. In the future, the combination of “enactive cognition”, “interaction theory” and “predictive processing model” may be the best combination to completely solve “the problems of other mind”, which also provide a reference for the mathematization trend of the new unified paradigm of cognitive science. Related Articles | Metrics